TEXT FLY WITHIN THE BOOK ONLY TIGHT RINGING BOOK I. Till- PARADE WHICH OPENED CKOYDON'S WAR WEAPONS WEEK IN THE NATIONAL SAVINGS CAMPAIGN [l>lanft 2. PEOPLE RENDERED HOMELESS IN AN AIR RAID ON SOUTHAMPTON SEEK ALTERNATIVE ACCOMMODATION AT AN EMERGENCY CENTRE [Sport and General 3. A DAY NURSRKY ESTABLISHED IN A FORMER PRIVATE MANSION WHERE THE CHILDREN OF MOTHERS ON WAR WORK ARE CARED FOR [AVys/om- 4. ROYS BETWEEN l8 AND Icjj YEARS OF AGE, SELECTED AS POTENTIAL OFFICERS IN ONE OF THE CRACK COUPS OF THE BRITISH ARMY, UNDERGOING PHYSICAL TRAINING [Fox Tholos 5. A MEDICAL AID POST ESTABLISHED BY LONDON TRANSPORT IN ONE OF THE 7<) TUBE STATIONS USED AS AIR-RAID SHELTERS \W\dt' World 6. A DEPTH CHARGE EXPLODING AFTER HE1NG DROPPED ON A SUSPECTED SUBMARINE FROM AN AMERICAN DESTROYER NOW IN COMMISSION WITH THE ROYAL NAVY [Fox Photos 7. GROWING FOOD IN THE FRENCH STYLE IN ENGLAND! CAULIFLOWERS BEING CULTIVATED UNDER CLOCHES [Sport and Central SUPPLEMENT TO 1942 BRITANNICA BOOK OF THE YEAR Recording developments of particular interest to Great Britain and the British Empire PUBLISHED BY THE ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA CO., LTD. 90 DEAN STRKHT, SOHO SQUARE LONDON, W.i COPYRIGHT BY Till-; ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA COMPANY, LTD. LONDON, J942 MADK AND 1'RINl'KD IN GRKAT BRITAIN BY HA/KI.L, WATSON AND VINEY, LTD. LONDON AND AYLKSBURY INTRODUCTION "N this, the third year of war, we aoain offer to our readers a survey and record of the year planned and carried through on the same scheme as -proved so successful for the year books issued in 1941 and 1940. In pre-war years the BRITANNICA YJLAR BOOK was issued in two separate but similar editions, one for American circulation and one for circulation in Great Britain and the British Empire. The need for economy in materials and in man power compelled the publishers to retain one edition only and war conditions dictated that that should be the American edition. Only in the United States has it been possible to produce a major work of this character. As before, the volume is prefaced by an introductory supplement of some thirty thousand words, dealing in detail with war time topics of specific interest to British readers. To non-American readers the 1940 and 1941 year books, which included many hundreds of thousands of words from British contributors, proved to have a special interest and value ; in the present circumstances of alliance and close co-operation the publishers confidently expect that an even more valuable service will be performed by this, the 1942 BRITANNICA BOOK or THE Yi AR. M. D. LAW. LONDON, March 1942. LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS AND CONTENTS PAC.K DIARY OF EVENTS THROUGHOUT THE BRITISH EMPIRE ....... 5 EMERGENCY LEGISLATION United Kingdom <} Bv PERCY HENRY WINFIIXD. F.H.A., LL.D., F.K.IIisT.S. Rouse Ball Professor of English Law, Cambridge University ; Of the Inner temple, Honorarv Bencher and Barrister-at- Law ; Member of the Lord Chancellor's Law Revision Committee. British Dominions and India I0 HonoraV^^ Temple ; Hon. Secretar , Society of Comparative Legislation ; Editor, Legislation of the Knipirc ; Author of Australasian Judicial Dirtitniarv. FOOD SUPPLY AND NUTRITION PROBLEMS IJ By V. II. MOTTRAM. M.A. (CANTAH.) . . Sometime Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge ; Professor of Physiology in the I mversity ol London ; Head of the Departments of Dietetics and Physiology, King's College of Household and Social Science, London. MAN POWER, CONTROL AND USE OF 'I By JACK STAFFORD, M.A. Lecturer in Economics, Manchester Cnivcrsity. POST-WAR RECONSTRUCTION: A SURVEY OF THOUGHT AND ACTION IN 1941 it. Em^ri^ PdiVica'l Science,' Canibridge. Author of Greek Political Theory : l-^lish Political Thought from 1848 to 1014 ; etc. PRICES, INCOMES AND STANDARDS OF LIVING lS Keader in Statistics. London School of Economics ; Member of the International Institute of Statistics. Author of Elementary Statistical Methods. PUBLIC HEALTH IN WAR-TIME - 1 Bv RALPH M. F. PICKKX, B.Sc., M.B., Cn.B,, D.I ML . i .. .. , t ,. Mansel Talbot Professor of Preventive Medicine. I'liivcrsity of Wales. Chairman, Public Health Committee. British Medical Association. SOCIAL WELFARE, MEASURES FOR PROMOTING -3 Bv MARCSARKT LKTITIA HARFORD Chief Woman Officer, National Council of Social Service ; Secretary, Women s Group on Public Welfare ; Vice- President, British Association of Residential Settlements. WAR FINANCE 25 Bv O. FJNULAY SHIKKAS, M.A. ,. ,- . Professor of Economics and Dean of the ! acuity of Economics and Commerce, University College Exeter ; formerlv Principal and Professor of Economics. Gujarat College, University of Bombay, 1926-1940 ; Director of Statistics with the Government of India, 1914 ** '. Author of The Science of Public Finance, etc. DIARY OF EVENTS THROUGHOUT THE BRITISH EMPIRE EXCLUDING THE COURSE OF HOSTILITIES From January i, 1941 -December 31, 1941 1941 Jan. i : Australia. It was announced that 496 survivors of British, French and Norwegian ships, including some women and children, who had been landed by German commerce raiders on the island of Emirau in the Bismarck archipelago on Dec. 21, had been rescued by naval units and brought into an Australian port. Jan. 3 : India. Under the Defence of India rules Maulana Abdul Kalam Azad, president of the Congress party, was arrested. Jan. 5 : United Kingdom.- Haling out from an aircraft which dived into the Thames estuary, Miss Amy Johnson, the airwoman, was drowned. Jan. 7 : United Kingdom. The arch- bishop of York's conference opened at Malvern to discuss the Church's oppor- tunity for inspiration with regard to a new order of society after the war. Jan. 8 : Kenya. Lord Baden-Powell, the chief scout, died in hLs 84th year. Jan. 9 : United Kingdom. In reply to President Roosevelt's personal request, the Hritish government agreed to allow from America limited supplies of vita- min concentrates, condensed milk and babies' clothing into unoccupied France. The ministry of food announced that the weekly meat ration, which on Jan. 6 was reduced to is., and from that date included pork and most offals, would be fixed weekly within the range of 15. to is. bd. Jan. 15 : Canada. Disagreement over consideration of the Uowell-Sirois report led to a breakdown of the dominion and provincial governments conference at. Ottawa on financial and constitu- tional reforms. Jan. 1 6 : United Kingdom. It was announced that monetary aid from the colonial empire by the end of 1940 totalled over 18.250.000. Jan. 17 : United Kingdom. -Promotion of music and art in war-time was guaranteed by a further grant of 12.500 from the Pilgrim Trust to the Council for the Encouragement of Music and the Arts, and a similar allocation from the treasury. Jan. 20 : United Kingdom. 'Orders were issued giving details of the government's scheme for compulsory fire-prevention. Jan. 21 : United Kingdom. Mr. Bcvin in the House of Commons outlined his plan for industrial registration by age groups. The Daily Worker and Week were suspended under Defence Regulations. India. Announcement was made of a resolution by Sikh leaders to form a Defence of India League to secure the maximum effort by the Sikhs in defence of India and to ensure Hritish victory. Jan. 25 : Hong Kong. The King replied to the resolution of devotion and loyalty passed by the legislative council on the looth anniversary of the colony's foundation. Jan. 26 : Australia. Serious losses in life and property were reported from the worst floods in the history of South Australia. Jan. 27 : South Africa. Additional esti- mates for war expenditure totalling 15,000,000 were proposed in parlia- ment. Jan. 29 : United Kingdom. The King signed a proclamation extending the application of the National Service Act to six new age groups -men of 18, 19, 37. 38, 39 and 40. Feb. i : United Kingdom. The new Air Training Corps was constituted. South Africa. Many people, mostly soldiers on leave, were injured in Johannesburg in serious polit'-cal riot- ing, arising from street clashes bciween soldiers and members of the Ossewa- brandwag. l ; eb. 4 : United Kingdom. Stories were disclosed of the abnormally severe weather experienced in early and mid- January. South Africa. A national security rode for the Union and South-west Africa was promulgated with immediate application. Feb. (> : United Kingdom, Neu sched- ules for world broadcasting, totalling 54 programme hours daily, were announced by the director-general of the B.B.C. Calling for a vote of credit of i, 000,000,000 for 1941-42. the than ccllor of the exchequer said that the daily cost of the war had risen to over 10,500,000. Feb. 13 : United Kingdom. -Sir Kinahan Coruwallis was appointed ambassador in Baghdad. Canada. It was announced that during the year the government were to construct a chain of airports from Alberta to the Yukon as a defence measure. Feb. 18 : Canada. The largest budget in dominion history called for an appro- priation of 2 90, 000,000 for war pur- poses. Northern Rhodesia.- Findings were published of the commission of inquiry into the April 1940 disturbances in the Copperbelt. Feb. 20 : Malta. -Regulations were issued for compulsory service of males between the ages of 18 and 41 in combatant capacities. Those between the ages of 1 6 and 56 became liable for other duties. United Kingdom. After a tour of inspection of the A. 1.1'*. in the middle east, Mr. Menzies, prime minister of Australia, arrived in England. Feb. 23 : United Kingdom. Mr. Amery, secretary of state for India, broadcast on India's part in the war and empha- sized that the declared goal of British policy for India was her free and equal partnership in the British common- wealth. Feb. 24 : Newfoundland. Sir Frederick Banting, discoverer of the insulin treatment for diabetes, who had been missing since Feb. 21, was found dead in aeroplane wreckage at Trinity Bay. March i : New Zealand. The free medical service provided for in the Social Security Act came into operation. March 3 : United Kingdom. To assist the national food and shipping problem, reductions in service rations were announced . News was released of the great snow- storm in the north in February, believed to be the most severe since 1888. March 5 : Eire. Mr. Frank Aiken, minister for the co-ordination of defence measures, left for the U.S. on an arms- and supply-buying mission. March 10 : United Kingdom. An order was made restricting meals in hotels and catering establishments to one of five main dishes fish, moat, poultry, eggs or cheese. March 12 : United Kingdom. Die Zeit- ung, a German language newspaper, made its first appearance in London. South Africa. The new budget intro- duced many tax increases and provided for a total defence expenditure of 72,000,000, the balance to be obtained by loan. Jamaica. Suggested constitutional changes in Jamaica were announced in the British Mouse of Commons. *larih 15 : New Zealand. It was an- sii unced by the New Zealand high commissioner in London that 20 estates comprising 2<.),ooo acres bad already been bought by the New Zealand government, for settlement of dominion soldiers after the war. March i(> : United Kingdom. Mr. Krnest Bevin announced new arrangements to increase man- and woman-power for work of national importance, involving rhe registration of men between 41 and 45, and of women of 20 and 21. March 17 : United Kingdom. Jam, mar- malade, syrup and treacle were rationed, the allowance being 8 02. of any one of these per person monthly. Eire.- In a St. Patrick's day broad- cast to the TJ.S.A., Mr. de Valera said that neutrality represented the deter- mined will of the Irish people. March 18 : India. -- The chamber of princes adopted a resolution calling for the establishment of a war advisory council through which the Indian States could co-operate with the provincial government 1 in prosecution of the war. March 19 : Canada. An agreement was signed with the United States for the immediate development of the Great Lakes and the St. Lawrence river seaway and power project, March 23 : United Kingdom. The King and Oueen with the. two princesses observed the national day of prayer in a small country church. Throughout the Empire people joined in the day's observances. March 25 : United Kingdom. The mini- ster of food announced that communal DIARY OF EVENTS feeding centres, already established in over joo towns, were being renamed " British Restaurants/' In the London area 147 had been set up. March 26 : United Kingdom. -The \Var Damage bill became law, and the National Service bill to make civil defence compulsory passed its second reading by 176 to 4. March 31 : Burma. The now flag was hoisted by the governor, Sir Archibald Cochranc, at a ceremony in Rangoon. Borneo. On the occasion of the centenary of the Brooke rule in Sara- wak, the Rajah, Sir Charles Vyner Brooke, renounced the absolute legisla- tive power and proposed that the com- mittee of administration be entrusted with the drafting of a liberal constitu- tion. April i : United Kingdom. Supplies of animal feeding-stuffs were reduced to J of pre-war rations. April 2 : Eire. Tea was rationed, the allowance being j 02. per person weekly. April 4 : Australia. The projected estab- lishment of a permanent joint com- mittee with New Zealand to discuss common defence and economic prob- lems was announced. April 6 : The War. The Germans attacked Yugoslavia and Greece. April 7: United Kingdom. In the new budget income tax was raised to 105. in the pound. April y : United Kingdom. Total war casualties to date were given as 29,856 civilians killed, and 40,897 wounded, and 37,607 members of the armed forces killed and missing arid 25,895 wounded. April 14 : United Kingdom. The war savings campaign reached the 700,000,000 mark. April 16: United Kingdom. The last remaining Crystal Palace tower was demolished, providing 800 tons of scrap iron. April 17 : Kenya. The governor an- nounced a forthcoming excess profits tax of not less than Go per cent. Similar measures were being taken in Tanganyika. Uganda and Zanzibar. United Kingdom. The business as- sets insurance scheme under the War Damage Act came into operation. Palestine. The Emir Abdul Ilah, regent of Iraq, arrived in Jerusalem, whither he had fled after the Iraqi revolt. April 19 : United Kingdom. The first registration of women under the Em- ployment Order 1941, comprising the 1920 class, took place. April 21 : India. Fifty people were reported killed and more than 300 injured in three-day riots at Ahmedabad between Sikhs and Moslems. April 22 : United Kingdom. The British Empire medal was instituted as a military and civil award. April 24 : South Africa. It was an- nounced that, owing to the short wheat crop, a standard wholemeal loaf would replace white bread throughout the Union on May i. April 30 : Canada. -Now taxes and sub- stantial increases in existing taxation were imposed in the new budget, to provide an additional revenue of $300,000,000 annually. Eire. The Dail voted /8, 383, 556 for the army for 1941-42. May i : United Kingdom. Lord Beaver- brook was appointed minister of state, and Col. Moore -Brabazon minister of aircraft production. A peerage was conferred on Mr. F. J. Leathers, who was appointed minister of shipping and transport. May 4 : United Kingdom. Double sum- mer time came into operation, clocks being put forward two hours in advance of Greenwich mean time. May 5 : Northern Rhodesia. The govern- ment offered 296,000 to Britain for the war effort, 50,000 to be for fighter aircraft. United Kingdom. - Cheese was rationed. May 6 : South Africa. Parliament, ad- journed after a session in which a number of social measures passed included a workmen's compensation act, a factories' act and an act to enable South African soldiers outside the Union to vote in the South African elections. May 7 : United Kingdom. A vote of confidence in the government was carried by 447 votes to 3. Mr. Churchill replied in parliament to critics of his policy. Eire. In t>e new budget income tax was raised to 7$. >d. in the pound. Canada. Mr. Mcnzies, prime mini- ster of Australia, addressed the Com- mons from the floor of the house. May 8 : United Kingdom. A new charter for seamen provided, among other measures, for a merchant navy reserve pool. May 10 : United Kingdom. Rudolf Hess, Hitler's deputy, landed by parachute near Glasgow and later was held as a prisoner of state. May 14 : Nyasaland. A gift of 39,1 50 to Britain marked the 5oth anniversary of the protectorate. May i Q : United Kingdom. War credits to date amounted to 4,800,000,000, and the total increase in taxation since the autumn of 1939 \vas 788,000,000. May 20 : United Kingdom. The Fire Services (Emergency Provisions) bill, authorizing the government to estab- lish a national fire brigade service in war-time, passed all its stages. May 24 : South Africa. The King con- ferred field-marshal's rank on Gen. Smuts on his 71 st birthday. May 28 : India. -Communal disturbances in Bombay resulted in the deaths of 29 people and a total of 178 injured. June 3: United Kingdom. Clothing, including footwear, was rationed. Each person was allowed 66 clothing coupons for 12 months. June 6 : Australia.- The minister for air announced that a Royal Australian air cadet corps was to be constituted on the lines of that in the United Kingdom. June ii : New Zealand.- -Married men from j 8 to 45 were ordered by proclama- tion to enrol for military service. Men of 21 to 40 would be balloted for overseas service. June 12 : India. Details were published of the destruction caused by cyclone in Bengal on May 25, when more than 4,000 people were killed. June 13 : United Kingdom. Civilian casualties for April were 6,065 killed, (.,926 injured ; for May, 5,394 killed, 5,181 injured and 75 missing. India. Under a reorganization scheme involving units of the Indian Territorial force, it was stated that five new regiments were being added to the Indian army. June 14: United Kingdom. Changes in the food rationing system included an increase in the domestic cheese ration and reduction of the butter ration from June 30, and doubling of the preserves ration from August. June 17 : Australia. New measures for expanding the war effort included the appointment of a minister of supply and a minister to co-ordinate civil defence, further petrol rationing, im- mediate prohibition of strikes and lock- outs, and enlistment of women for war industries. June 1 8 : Canada. More than 2,400 Canadians were stated to be studying for service as radio-location operators in Britain. United Kingdom. Owen Tudor, ridden by \V. Nevett, won the New Derby at Newmarket. June 20 : United Kingdom. -Mr. Frascr, prime minister of New Zealand, arrived by air. June 22 : The War. Russia, invaded by Germany, was promised full aid by Mr. Churchill. June 26 : United Kingdom. The Com- mons passed the Goods and Services (Price Control) bill. June 2 9 : United Kingdom. Lord Beaverbrook was appointed minister of supply, Sir Andrew Duncan, president of the board of trade, and Mr. Oliver Lyttelton to special duties abroad. July i : United Kingdom. The secretary for petroleum announced a reduction of one-sixth in the basic ration of petrol for private cars in the August, Septem- ber and October period. Australia. Senator James Cunning- ham, deputy leader of the Labour opposition, was elected president of the senate. July 2 : United Kingdom. It was dis- closed that the first three weeks of June had provided the most extraordinary June weather on record. Only 11 days after the coldest June day for five years London experienced the hottest June day on record. July 3 : Newfoundland. For the first time for many years the budget showed a surplus of income over expenditure. From the surplus it was decided to present $500,000 to Britain for a tighter aircraft squadron, to be manned by Newfoundlanders. July 5 : Canada. To provide Britain with Canadian dollars, the government advanced 325,000,000 to the foreign exchange control board. July 8 : United Kingdom. -The final figure for the whole of the war weapons weeks in the national savings campaign was announced as 395, 000,000. Australia. The air minister stated that expenditure on the Royal Austra- lian air force in the current financial year would exceed A. 1,000,000 a week. July ii : Australia. Net war expenditure in the year ended June 30 was JA. 169,857,000, which was A.5, 500,000 less than the estimate. Revenue for the year was A. 2, 121,000 above the esti- mate. The income tax yield was more than double that of the previous year. July 17 : New Zealand. The second war budget estimated the country's war expenditure at 69,700,000. July 20 ; United Kingdom. Government changes included the appointment of Mr. Duff Cooper, chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster, to a special mission in the far east ; of Mr. R. A. Butler as president of the board of education ; of Mr. Brendan Bracken to be minister of information. July 21 : India. Exchange of represen- tatives between India and America having been agreed upon, Sir Girja F les DIARY OF EVENTS Shankar Bajpai was appointed the Indian representative, to be styled agent-general. July 22 : Straits Settlements. Rumours of impending British action in Irido- China were denied in an official broad- cast in English and French from Singapore. India. The secretary of state for India announced that the governor- genvrai's executive council would be enlarged and a national defence council established. July 27: Canada. -The minister for trade and commerce announced the conclusion of an agreement under which two-thirds of British Columbia's canned salmon for 1941, expected to amount to more than 1,000,000 cases, would be sent to Britain. United Kingdom. An i in por tan 1 stage in the growth of Liverpool cathe- dral was reached when the old and new sections were used for the first time together. Removal of the temporary dividing wall revealed a vista of much grandeur. India. The second session of the conference of non-party leaders was opened at Poona by Sir Tcj Bahadur Sapru, who reviewed events since the Bombay conference. July 30 : India. Membership of National Congress showed a rapid decline under Mr. Gandhi's policy of non-violent pacifism in relation to the war. Before the outbreak of war members numbered some 4,500,000. In 1939-40 there were 3,000,000 and in 1941 the total was little over 1,500,000. Aug. 7 : Eire. It was announced that sugar would be rationed on the basis of i Ib. a week per person. Aug. 10 : United Kingdom. Double summer time ended and clocks were put back one hour. Aug. ii : United Kingdom. Reclaimed land in East Sussex, some of which had been unproductive for centuries, would yield, it was stated, crops worth 85,000 in 1941. Australia. --The conference of premi- ers decided to spend A. 1,000,000 on A.R.P. in vulnerable areas, half to be paid by the commonwealth, and A. 85,000 on supplementary measures, including anti-gas equipment. United Kingdom. Friendly Germans, Austrians and Italians in the country began to register for war work. It was stated that savings stamps to the value of about 20,000,000 had been bought since the inception of the war savings campaign. Aug. 13 : South Africa. -At the Trans- vaal congress of the Herenigde party, summoned to consider the adoption of the federal council's declaration of policy, Dr. Malan, the leader, con- demned Mr. Pirow's campaign for a " new order " based on National Socialism. Aug. 14 : United Kingdom. Mr. Attler announced in a broadcast that Mr. Churchill and President Roosevelt had met at sea and agreed on the eight- point " Atlantic charter " of peace aims. Aug. 15 : United Kingdom. With a message to Sir Claud Auchinleck, the Queen opened the new airgraph letter service to forces in the middle east. Aug. 20 : United Kingdom. Mr. Mac- kenzie King, Canadian premier, arrived in the country. Aug. 22 : Jamaica. After a three days' debate the legislature rejected the pro- posals for a new constitution, and an amendment favouring full representa- tive government was adopted by the legislative council. Aug. 25 : Australia. Mr. Menzies's pro- posal for a national government was rejected by the Labour party, who demanded the resignation of his govern- ment. India. The premiers of the Punjab and of Assam resigned from the national defence council under pressure from the Moslem League. Aug. 28 : United Kingdom. The minister of war transport announced a new financial agreement under which the government would make an annual payment of ^43,000,000 to the four controlled railway companies and the* London Passenger Transport Board. Aug. 28 : Canada. Under a contract to become operative 1 in October thc; government agreed to provide Britain with 600,000,000 Ib. of bacon in a year. Aug. 29 : Australia. Commissioned to form a new cabinet, following the resignation of Mr. Mcnzies on Aug. 28, Mr. Fadden announced that there would be for the present no changes in the ministry. Mr. Mcnzies would retain the portfolio of dcfcncci co-ordination. Sept. 4 : Kenya. The compulsory regis- tration of British European women between 18 and 60 for war work was announced . Sept. 6 : United Kingdom. Details were announced of arrangements for the compulsory registration of men between 1 8 and 60 for fire guard duties. Sept. 7 : United Kingdom. The first Sunday following the second anniver- sary of the war was observed as a national day of prayer. Sept. 8 : Canada.- - Production of motor cars for sale in 1942 was reduced by an order in council to 44 per cent of the 1940 figure. Sept. 10 : India.- Mr. Fazlul Huq, premier of Bengal, resigned from the defence council and from the working committee and council of the Moslem League in protest against Mr. Jinnah's attitude to participation in the viceroy's defence council. New Zealand. Mr. Nash, acting premier, announced in parliament that the King had approved of the designa- tion of the New /calami naval forces as the " Royal New Zealand Navy." Sept. 12 : United Kingdom. A political warfare committee, responsible to the foreign secretary and the ministers of information and economic warfare, was set up. Sept. 14 : Canada. Roman Catholics and Protestants alike observed a reconsecra- tion week throughout the country. United Kingdom. Details of the re- organization of the fire fighting services as a national lire service, brought secretly into operation on Aug. 18, were disclosed. The scheme involved the rcconstitution of 1,400 fire brigades as 33 fire forces conducted on an entirely new system . Sept. 15 : India. The voluntary con- version of the Territorial force into regular units became effective, and it was stated that more than 75 per cent of the Territorials had volunteered for full military service. Sept. 17: United Kingdom. The Na- tional Trust for Scotland announced that the famous falls of Glomach in Ross-shire were to be handed over to their custody. Sept. 18 ; United Kingdom. The result of 21 months' salvage collection by those local authoritievS which made returns to the salvage department of the ministry of supply was stated to be a total of 1,550,000 tons of waste material, which was resold to industry for 3, 700,000. Sept. 24 : Sarawak. On the centenary of the state, the new constitution was approved. Sept. 25 : Australia. Mr. Fadden agreed to the appointment of a royal commis- sion of inquiry into the allegations against the government regarding the use of " secret funds " for counter- propaganda against subversive ele- ments. New tax measures to meet a pro- posed expenditure of /A. 2 17, 000,000 for war purposes were outlined by the prime minister in the new budget. Oct. 3 : United Kingdom. Col. J. J. Llewcllin, joint parliamentary secretary to the ministry of war transport, stated that in the second year of war 10,073 people had been killed on the roads, against a pre-war average? of 6,500 deaths a year. Australia. A vote of censure on the government on the budget was carried by 36 votes to 33. On Mr. Faddcn's resignation Mr. Curtin undertook lo form a new government. The royal commission investigating the alleged use of public money for activities of the Australian Democratic front opened its inquiries. Oct. 6: United Kingdom. The total raised in small savings since the inauguration of the national savings campaign in November 1939 passed the ; i, 000,000,000 mark. Australia. Mr. Curtin announced his new Labour administration in which he himself took over the portfolio of defence co-ordination. India. The first meeting of the new national defence council was opened by the viceroy. Northern Rhodesia and Kenya. Reconstruction of the Great North Road between Northern Rhodesia and Kenya to an all-weather standard at a cost of ^355,000 was decided upon by the war office. Oct. 7 : United Kingdom. The secretary for war announced in parliament that last minute demands by the German government had caused the can- cellation of plans for the exchange with Germany of sick and wounded prisoners of war. Australia. A bill authorizing a loan of /A. 50,000,000 was passed in parlia- ment. Mr. Fadden was elected opposition leader by the United Australia and Country parties. Oct. 13 : Straits Settlements. At the budget meeting of the legislative council a revenue of 59,700,000 Straits dollars was estimated^ for 1942, against an expenditure of $58,200,000. Oct. 14 : Canada. The national income was stated to have reached a higher level than ever known in dominion history. At $3,446,000,000 in the first eight months of 1941 it showed an increase of 10-5 per cent over the same period in 1940. India. Census returns for 1941 showed that the total population was 388,800,000. Oct. 15 : New Zealand. It was decided to postpone the general election to avoid disruption of national unity in the war effort, and a bill extending the life of 8 DIARY OF EVENTS parliament to Nov. i f 1942, was passed without a division. Oct. 1 6 : United Kingdom. -The appeal to the House of Lords by Antonio Mancini against his conviction for murder was dismissed. Mane in i had appealed on a point of law against the refusal by the Court of Criminal Appeal to quash the conviction of the Central Criminal Court. Australia* The establishment of a Japanese air line to Timor was stigma- tized in the press as a provocative act. Oct. 17 : Australia.- The government undertook to send 1,000.000 worth of railway stock to Iran. India. In spite of war-time difficul- ties the British India office announced that arrangements had been made to transport Moslem pilgrims from India to perform the Ilaj in Arabia. Oct. 1 3 : Canada. Mr. Mackenzie King announced the government's decision to give the Wartime Prices Trade Board authority for price control of all commodities except goods for export, and of rent and services. To control wages and regulate industrial relations a national labour relations board would be set up. Oct. 21 : United Kingdom. An increase in the government grant for free school meals was announced. Oct. 23 : South Africa.- General Hert- zog's advocacy of National Socialism ended a political association of more than 40 years with Mr. Havenga, leader of the Afrikaner party, who insisted on maintaining the democratic basis of the party. Oct. 28 : India. A boycott of the new session of the central legislature was begun by the Moslem League party. Oct. 29 : United Kingdom. Sir Karle Page, Australia's special representative, arrived in London. Australia. -A budget superseding that of Sept. 25 during Mr. Fadden's administration was introduced by the treasurer and showed total expenditure as 324,965,000 (compared with 319,306,000 estimated in the previous budget), of which 221.485,000 repre- sented war appropriation. Income tax on incomes over 2,500 was raised to 16^. 8d. in the pound. Nov. i : United Kingdom.- -The historic estate of Wallington in the Middle Marches of Northumberland, comprising over 13,000 acres of farms and moor- lands, was given to the National Trust by Sir Charles Trevelyan. Nov. 2 : Hong Kong.- -The government protested to the Japanese.' government against a violation of the border on Oct. 29 when Japanese soldiers fired on Chinese inside Hong Kong territory. Nov. 3 : United Kingdom. IJ Saw, premier of Burma, who arrived in England on Oct. 10 on a mission from his country, expressed dissatisfaction with the results of his visit. Australia.- Sir Earle. Page, the government's special representative to Britain, stated in London that Australia was fully capable of defending itself and taking part in the wider strategy that would be involved by war in the Pacific. Nov. 6: United Kingdom. Sir Walter Monckton was appointed head of the propaganda and information services in the middle cast under the minister of state (Mr. Oliver Lyttelton). Canada.- The minister of munitions announced an expansion of the ship- building programme, and new facilities for ship repairing were estimated to cost $4,500,000. Nov. ii : The Empire. Following ob- servances of Remembrance Sunday on Nov. 9, when in England Flanders poppies covered the Empire field of remembrance outside Westminster Abbey, Armistice day was commemor- ated throughout the Empire. In Australia the anniversary was marked by the opening of the national war memorial by Lord Cowrie. United Kingdom. Eight people were shot, three fatally, in a remarkable shooting affair in west London for which a man was later arrested. Nov. 12 : Canada. Senator Arthur Meighen accepted the leadership of the Conservative party. Nov. 13 : United Kingdom. First details were released of the Avro-Manchester twin-engine bomber, disclosing a defen- sive armament of eight machine guns. India. Mr. Gandhi stated that so far as he knew the Congress party would neither appreciate nor respond to any gesture the government might make in releasing the Satyagraha prisoners. Invitations would be extended to those discharged to offer themselves again for civil disobedience if physically fit. Nov. 17 : United Kingdom.- Temporary increases were made in the domestic fat and sugar ration. Nov. 1 8 : United Kingdom.- -A token stoppage 01 work by Clydesidc shipyard workers in opposition to their trade union executive was organized to draw attention to demands for a, ion. a week wages advance. Sir John Dill was created a field- marshal and appointed governor-desig- nate of Bombay. Nov. 21 : India. Mr. Thomas M. Wilson, first U.S. commissioner to India, pre- sented his credentials to the viceroy. Nov. 23 : United Kingdom. Under the new milk distribution scheme adult consumers were entitled to receive not more than two pints of fresh milk weekly. Nov. 27 : Australia.- The findings of Mr. Justice liaise- Rogers, reporting as royal commissioner investigating the USD of " secret funds," were published. Nov. 29 ; United Kingdom. In the second year of the war savings campaign which ended on Nov. 21 ^633,262,731 was contributed in small savings, compared with ^484,043, 375 in the previous year. Dec. i : United Kingdom.- Canned meats, fish and beans were rationed under a points system. Malaya. -A state of emergency was declared throughout the Malay States and the Straits Settlements. Dec. 3: India. Civil disobedience prisoners released by the government included Maulana Abdul Kalam Azad and Jawaharlal Nehru. Dec. 4 : United Kingdom. A parliamen- tary motion introduced by Mr. Churchill and embodying proposals for further mobilization of man- and woman-power " to achieve the maximum national effort " was passed in the Commons. Dec. 5 : Australia. Army leave was cancelled and emergency measures in the Pacific were put into effect. Dec. 7 : The War. Britain declared war on Finland, Hungary and Rumania, and similar declarations followed from the Kmpire. Dec. 8 : The War. Britain declared war on Japan. Dec. ii : Australia. Emergency meas- ures announced by Mr. Curtin included the call-up of single men of 35 to 45 and married men of 1 8 to 35. India. The arrest was announced of Sarat Chandra Bose, owing to his con- tacts with the Japanese. Dec. 13 : New Zealand. Under new petrol restrictions no petrol was allowed for pleasure, and all motor deliveries and passenger services were reduced. Dec. 16: United Kingdom. The chan- cellor of the exchequer stated that recent expenditure had risen to nearly 83,000,000 a week. Total expenditure on the war had reached /8, 300,000,000. Australia.- New taxation, supple- menting the. October budget aimed at raising 16,000,000. It included a war- time levy on all incomes and an increase in company tax. Dec. 1 8 : United Kingdom. The Duchess of Gloucester gave birth to a son, her first child. Dec. 19 : United Kingdom. The King signed a proclamation making women from 20 to 30 liable to call-up under the National Service Act which became law on Dec. 18. Straits Settlements.- Mr. Duff Cooper, already in Singapore, was appointed resident minister at Singapore for far eastern affairs. Dec. -2i : United Kingdom. Peerages were conferred on four members of the Labour party. Dec. 23 : United Kingdom. It was dis- closed that Mr. Churchill was in the U.S. to discuss with the President full Allied co-ordination. Dec. 25 : United Kingdom. The King's Christmas day message to his people was broadcast throughout the world. Dec. 27 : The War. A state of war with Bulgaria as from Dec. 13 was announced in Britain. Dec. 28 : Malaya. Registration began of all civilians in Singapore, and a Chinese council was formed to mobi- lize the resources of the Chinese com- munities. Dec. 30 : Canada. Mr. Churchill ad- dressed both houses of parliament. India* Mr. Gandhi resigned his leadership of the Congress party. Malaya.- Martial law was proclaimed for the settlement of Singapore. Dec. 31 : United Kingdom. Rembrandt's portrait of Margaret ha Trip, from the collection of Lord Crawford and Bal- carres, was bought for the nation at a cost of 20,000. SUPPLEMENT EMERGENCY LEGISLATION. The chief character- istics of emergency legislation during 194 1 were, first, a steadily increasing demand by the state for per- sonal services of members of the community and, secondly, greater stringency of provisions against economic waste and unfair distribution of commodities. Mobili/.ation of citizens and national resources for the successful prosecution of the \var is the key-note of both these aims. The first of them was evidenced not only by the extension of the ages of conscription for military service for both youths and adults but also in making compulsory the performance of certain civil duties connected with the war (e,g., fire- watching) and in requiring women between certain ages to register for national service. Proofs of the second aim appear both in Acts of Parliament and in a multitude of statutory rules and orders issued by government depart- ments acting under statutory authority. A mere glance at the topics with which these orders deal shows the extent to which individual freedom of action has been subordin- ated to the needs of the war. Various restrictions were placed on dealings in specified commodities, e.g., confec- tionery, apples, lard, coal, petrol, bulbs, seeds, rabbits, and departmental legislation affected such diverse subjects as dock-labour, the load-line of ships and the permission to public vehicles to take a certain number of standing passengers. This article is necessarily limited to a brief notice of the more important statutes passed in 1941. The National Service Act (4 & 5 Geo. VI, c. 16) extended conscription to the Civil Defence Services because it was found that, in some areas, the personnel of bodies like the Auxiliary Fire Service and the First Aid Associations would be insufficient to cope with enemy action. The Act by no means abandons the voluntary system here, but reinforces it by giving men, who arc liable to be called up for military service, the opportunity of choosing service in civil defence, subject to vacancies being available and to the prior claims of the armed forces of the Crown. A person accepted in this way for civil defence becomes a servant of the Crown. The intensification of enemy air attacks during 1940 and the earlier months of 1941 showed that, admirable as were the courage and skill of members of the fire-lighting service, there were serious defects in the organization of the system under which they worked. There was too much localization of it and the senior fire officers had not enough executive authority. The Fire Services (Emergency Provisions) Act (4 & 5 Geo. VI, c. 22) reformed this by enab- ling the Secretary of State to make regulations for the co ordination of all or any of the lire services provided by local authorities, or for the unification in whole or in part of any of those services, and for any other matters which appear to him to be necessary or expedient for improving existing arrangements for fighting fires. Probably no statute was of more general interest than the War Damage Act (4 & 5 Geo. VI, c. 12) which became law on March 26, 1941. Broadly, its purpose is to provide state-aided compensation for damage to certain kinds of property directly resulting from enemy action, from counter-measures against enemy action, or from precau- tionary measures against it. Naturally, injury due to air raids is the commonest form of such damage, but it is not the only instance. The Act applies to England, Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland, Part I of it deals with damage to land and this includes buildings and other immovables. The proprietor of the land must pay a contribution which is in effect a new tax on land. There are special provisions relating to land that is mortgaged or leased. The period of risk covered by Part I was from September 3, 1939, to August 21, 1941, but a later Act extended it to August 31, 1942 (4 & 5 Geo. VI, c. 37). Part II of the Act relates to insurance of goods against war damage. The Board of Trade are to insure goods in the ownership or possession of persons carrying on business. Under the War Risks Insurance Act, 1939, they insure sellers or suppliers of goods in respect of their stocks. Part II of the Act of 1941 enables the board also to issue insurance policies on private goods, such as household furniture and other personal property owned or possessed by the insurer, or by members of his household ordinarily resident with him, or by his domestic servants. The Act is necessarily experimental. Some amendments of it have already been made by 4 & 5 Geo. VI, c. 37, and, like most emergency legislation, much of its working must depend on its adaptation to circumstances by statutory rules and orders made in pursuance of it. Nevertheless, both it and the Personal Injuries (Civilian) Scheme, 1940, which was noted in this article last year and which provides compen- sation for injuries sustained by civilians in consequence of the war, constitute a wise and courageous acceptance of responsibility by the state for alleviating the disasters that are incident to the civil population in modern warfare. Other and later statutes relating to the same topic are the Repair of War Damage Act (4 & 5 Geo. VI, c. 34) and the Landlord and Tenant (War Damage) (Amendment) Act (4 & 5 Geo. VI, c. 41). The former amended earlier legislation as to the powers of local authorities to repair buildings rendered unfit for housing purposes by war damage and as to state loans to these authorities for giving effect to their powers. The latter .amended the principal Act passed in 1939, which dealt with the problems arising between the landlord and tenant of premises injured by war damage, and in particular enabled the tenant to disclaim the lease. The chief point in the amending Act is that it excepts from disclaimer short tenancies, which are defined in effect as those determinate on three months' notice ; but it also frees the tenant from liability to pay rent if the premises are unoccupied and, if they are occu- pied, it allows him to apply to the court for adjustment of the rent payable, if he and the landlord cannot agree on the amount by which it shall be reduced. Among the statutes concerning constitutional law, the following must be noticed. Since the time of Queen Anne it has been law that acceptance of an office or place of profit under the Crown shall disqualify the holder for a seat in the House of Commons. There were many exceptions to this rule (e.g. commissions in the armed forces of the (Town) and several more had been added since the outbreak of war. But its exigencies demanded freer and prompter action in increasing the exceptions and this was created by the House of Commons Disqualification (Temporary Provi- sions) Act (4 & 5 Geo. VI, c. 8). It enabled the First Lord of the Treasury (i.e., the Prime Minister) to certify that the appointment of any member of parliament to any office under the Crown is required in the public interest for purposes connected with the prosecution of the war. Such certificate must be laid before the House of Commons and the disqualification of office then does not apply to the member's tenure of his seat. The Act was not passed without a good deal of criticism in the House itself, on the IO EMERGENCY LEGISLATION British Council] FOREIGN LAW COURTS IN LONDON. THE NETHERLANDS MARITIME HIGH COURT IN SESSION AT THE MIDDLESEX GUILDHALL ground that it seriously invaded the principle of the independence of the legislature from the executive, and a committee of the House appointed to consider the whole question issued its report at the end of 1941. Two other statutes originated in problems raised by the migration of members of allied governments to England in consequence of the war. Diplomatic privileges were conferred on them by the Diplomatic Privileges (Extension) Act (4 & 5 Geo. VI, c. 7). Much more remarkable is the Allied Powers (Mari- time Courts) Act (4 & 5 Geo. VI, c. 21), which made a new departure by enabling His Majesty by Order in Council to permit any allied power to set up maritime courts with criminal jurisdiction in the United Kingdom. The jurisdiction is limited to offences committed by persons (other than British subjects) on board a merchant ship of the power concerned, or by the master or any member of the crew against the merchant shipping law of the power, or by any person, who is a national and a seaman of the power, against its mercantile marine conscription law. Provisions are made for the co-operation of the British executive authorities in bringing such persons to trial by the maritime courts and in compelling the attendance of witnesses. Norwegian, Dutch and Polish courts have already been set up under this Act. Another constitutional innovation was the Isle of Man (Detention) Act (4 & 5 Geo. VI, c. 16) which enables the government to detain in the Isle of Man non-enemy aliens and persons in confine- ment under the Defence Regulations. The Act was necessary, because technically the Isle of Man is not part of the United Kingdom and, apart from the statute, it would be unlawful to transport there British subjects or non-enemy aliens. The Prices of Goods Act, 1939, provided safeguards against the " vicious spiral " of inflated prices and deprecia- tion in the value of money by fixing basic prices for such goods as the Board of Trade should from time to time specify. The Act was not altogether effective and was amended by the Goods and Services (Price Control) Act, 1941 (4 & 5 Geo. VI, c. 31), which was designed to put a stop to "black markets" in commodities in common demand. Any person commits a criminal offence if he holds up the sale of stocks of goods which are subject to price-control. Holding up includes not only refusal to sell the goods but also false statements to a prospective buyer that the trader has not the goods. It extends also to offers to sell the goods subject to a condition that the buyer shall purchase other goods (whether price-controlled or not) ; indeed, no condition is permissible except that the buyer shall pay the price forthwith or that he shall take delivery within a reasonable time. The Act also empowers the Board of Trade to fix maximum charges for services to goods ; " service " here signifies hiring goods or subjecting them to any process. Further, the board is enabled to regulate the sale of any class of second-hand goods in which it has reason to think that profiteering is taking place. A considerable number of people have been plunged in financial difficulties by the war. Earlier emergency statutes had given them some relief, but the Liabilities (War-time Adjustment) Act (4 & 5 Geo. VI, c. 24) goes so far beyond prior legislation that it has been styled the " debtor's charter." " Debtor " under the Act includes, as well as individuals, partnership firms and private com- panies, but not other corporations. The Act does what none of the earlier statutes attempted to, do ; it enables a debtor to get, not simply temporary relief, but a settlement of his affairs with the prospect of continuing or renewing his business in better times ; and he can achieve this without the disgrace of bankruptcy, although much of the procedure resembles bankruptcy procedure. The settle- ment is effected by a newly created body of officials called " liabilities adjustment officers." The Finance Act (4 & 5 Geo. VI, c. 30) continued the principle of its predecessors with respect to taxation during the war, which is to restrain the expenditure of money on things the supply of which is not equal to demand. The most conspicuous feature of the Act was its increase of income tax from 8s. 6d. to los. in pound (see INCOME TAX ; WAR FINANCE). AUTHORITIES. Primary sources are the Statutes and Statutory Rules and Orders published by the government ; but these are not easily accessible as a whole to most readers. The best collection is Butterworths Emergency Legislation Service Annotated. It deals separately with (i) Statutes ; (2) Regulations and Service, and both are kept up to date by the issue of supplements. (P. H. W.) Dominions and India. Legislation has been passed in the dominions complementary to that enacted at Westminster since the declaration of war. Canada. The first act of the Canadian parliament in 1940 was an amendment of the National Defence Act of the war of 1914-18 which was repealed towards the end of the session by another Act (c. 21) authorizing the appoint- ment of a minister of national defence with such additional ministers for the army, navy and air force as might be found necessary. A more comprehensive measure (c. 13) conferred upon the governor in council special emergency powers to permit the mobilization of all the effective resources of the nation, both human and material, for the purpose of the defence and security of the dominion. By orders and regulations made under the Act he may do anything " deemed necessary or expedient for securing the public safety, the defence of Canada, the maintenance of public order, or the efficient prosecution of the war." In order to carry out the provisions of this Act, the department for national war services was created (c. 22) with a separate minister entnisted with the duty to conduct a national registration of personal services and a survey of material contributions for the prosecution of the war and the welfare of the nation. In order to secure a united effort he was authorized to establish such provincial or local councils as might be necessary while enlisting and using to the full existing organizations able to assist in EMERGENCY LEGISLATION 1 1 carrying out the purposes of the Act. While looking to the provinces for co-operation in this respect the dominion at the same time took reciprocal action to mitigate the effects of war conditions in the provinces. Accordingly an Act (c. 23) was passed to provide for some contribution by the dominion, where circumstances warrant, to supplement the measures taken by the provinces towards providing assistance to those in need, establishing unemployed persons in employment, and training and fitting suitable persons for productive occupations, thereby lessening provincial and municipal burdens in so far as they might be due to extraordinary conditions of unemployment previously existing, and at the same time developing the economic capacity of the nation to carry on the war. While willing to aid in furthering the national effort, the government made it clear that they had no intention of using this or any other legislation to relieve municipalities of their own obligations incurred to bondholders or of the sound administration of their own finances. The growth of the Royal Canadian Air Force required new legislation (c. 15) to define the constitution and government. It carries the legislation of the United Kingdom relating to the air force into the dominion, 'subject to the usual provision that it is not inconsistent with anything contained in the Canadian Act. Another piece of legislation of the Great War requiring extension was the War Measures Act (R.S.C., c. 27). Provi- sions relating to compensation for the valuing of certain property for war purjKDses are now contained in c. 28 of 1940 dealing with requisition of vessels or aircraft and space in ships. The Act of 1939 creating a department of munition and supply was amended in the following year (c. 31) so as to extend the powers of the minister, including the creation of a body corporate by charter to undertake the actual supply of the munitions of war and the direction of any firms providing them. The necessity for protection against the enemy within the gates found expression in the passing of the Treachery Act (c. 43) which expedited the procedure so as to avoid delay in dealing with accused persons and laid down measures for the transfer of offenders under the direction of the attorney general from the civil to the military authorities. The division of powers between the dominion and provincial legislatures required legislation to be passed by the latter, as, for example, Acts in Alberta (1940, c. 4) and Saskatchewan (1940, c. 109) giving powers similar to those contained in the English Courts Emergency Powers Act, by which men on active service could be relieved from obliga- tions, including exemption of their house property from assessment and taxation. The Saskatchewan Act provides an example of the extensions which have been found necessary to legislation of this kind. In the original Act relief was limited to estates assessed at an amount not exceeding $2,500. By an Act of 1941 (c. 87) relief up to that amount was extended to estates of any value. The warmth of the hospitality of the dominions towards the scheme for sending children from Great Britain to their care found expression in legislation. Ontario, for example, assented on April 9, 1941, to the British Child Guests Act (c. 9) which made the superintendent of neg- lected and dependent children the guardian of any infant entering the province after Sept. i, 1939. from Great Britain and Northern Ireland. He was given power to consent to a surgical operation, medical care and hospital treatment in any case where the consent of a parent or legal guardian is required and could direct that if necessary any child might be taken from the home where it resides and bo placed in a foster home approved by a children's aid society. The Act does not apply to any child living with or subject to the control of cither or both parents residing in Canada. Parliamentary time has been much occupied with the measures necessary to deal with the financial requirements of the war. Details are beyond the scope of this survey, but broadly speaking it may be said that the main principles adopted in the United Kingdom were followed in the dominions. Australia was particular!}' occupied with a number of financial measures during the session of 1940 which had a particularly large output of legislation. Similarly the states had to devote time to financial legislation though it was not wholly concerned with internal affairs. A Tasmania Act (No. 37 of 1940-41), for example, enables statutory bodies to contribute tip to one per cent or ^100, whichever is the greater, to any fund raised within the British dominions for the relief of victims of enemy air raids or any other patriotic purpose which the governor may approve. In 1941 the first Commonwealth Act extended the long series of measures dating back to 1918, which deal with the provision of homes for men of the services. No. 2 required the employer to deduct the defence tax from the wages of the workman, and this by No. 3 was fixed at two and a half per cent. The Defence Acts were strengthened by No. 4 and the position of civil servants on active service protected by No. 5. For the more efficient conduct of the war an Act (No. 24) increased the number of ministers of state in order to provide special ministerial responsibility for aircraft pro- duction, civil defence, including air-raid precautions, and the problem of the organization of civil resources. During the war of 1914 to 1918 the amount appropriated for the salaries of ministers of state was increased from ^13,600 to ^15,300, and this figure has now been raised from ^18,000 to 21,250. Indirectly as a result of war-time conditions, it was necessary to increase the endowment for children to five shillings for each child, payable to the mother for the " maintenance, training and advancement of the child." Another measure (No. 26) of a similar character constituted a commonwealth council for national fitness " to encourage the development of national fitness in each state under the direction of a national fitness council appointed by the government of the state ... to promote physical educa- tion in schools, universities, and other institutions." New Zealand was also engaged during 1940 in passing legislation to deal with finance, including a measure specially devoted to national savings which elsewhere have been authorized in the Finance Acts. The governor general was given (c. i) similar powers to those exercised in Great Britain, Canada and Australia as required by the emergency to deal with compensation for property, treat- ment of aliens, etc. Faithful to its settled policy, New Zealand continued its endeavours to establish social security for the people, and by amendment (1941, No. 14) of the Social Security Act took a further step in the attempts to provide medical benefits. The funds have been supplied (1941, No. 4) to extend family allowances to mothers with one child instead of, as formerly, to those with three or more children. The government established (i94 T No - *?) 12 FOOD SUPPLY AND NUTRITION PROBLEMS a war damage commission operating on similar lines to the English arrangements. The Rehabilitation Act (1941, No. 25) covered the subject of post-war reconstruction by dealing with the re-establishment of " service men " (which includes men of the mercantile marine) in civil life, and industrial reconstruction, which is primarily concerned with the transfer to peace-time industries of persons who have been engaged in war work. South Africa. The legislation of South Africa shows participation in the empire conflict. The general provi- sions for the protection of the community are contained in the War Measures Act (1940, No. 13) dealing with the maintenance of public order and the prosecution of the war, and principally consist of the validation of proclama- tions already in operation. In the middle of 1940 an Act (No. 20) was passed to provide for the payment of benefits to men who had sustained injury and the dependents of those killed in action, for payments in certain circumstances to members of the Essential Services Protection Corps and others on their retirement and to the dependents on death, and for a moratorium for the protection of persons on military service. Special provision was made for clerks articled to attorneys that the period of active service might exempt them from part or the whole of their period of articles. The conditions under which absent military voters are entitled to record their votes were embodied in an Act of 1941 (No. 37). Provisions for pensions for men on active service dating back to the Boer War were extended by No. 45 of 1941. State insurance against war damage was authorized by c. 21. South Africa also paid attention to the social security of its people, and passed a comprehensive measure for the control of factories and workshops (KJ.JT, No. 22) giving annual holidays with pay and increasing the maternity benefit for women in industry. A consolidation and extension of the law relating to workmen's compensation (No. 30) was another measure of the session, ft established a state insurance fund similar to those in operation in Canada and Queensland where conditions are more com- parable to those of South Africa. India. After providing for the registration of British subjects (No. i) at the beginning of TQ.JO, the Indian legislature proceeded to impose restrictions on foreigners (No. 2) by making provision for their entry, their intern- ment, and their departure. Extension of service in the Royal Indian Navy for the duration of the war was author- ized by Act No. 3 and provisions relating to national service by European British subjects whether in the armed forces or in a civil capacity were contained in No. 18, amended in 1941 (No. 6) by providing for the determination of the question whether a person is liable to be called up for national service. Minor amendments (Nos. 19 and 28) were made in 1940 in previous defence measures. Com- panies were authorized by No. 37 to make donations to public funds formed, and to make investments in govern- ment loans floated for the purpose of assisting the prosecu- tion of the war. The constitution of an air-raid precaution service was authorized by No. 4 of 1941, and rendered any persons failing to obey lawful orders liable to a fine not exceeding fifty rupees. Compensation for injuries during the present hostilities was authorized by the War Injuries Ordinance (No. vii), and included the purchase or grant of cost of artificial limbs or appliances. AUTHORITIES. Primary sources are the Acts and Ordinances passed by the various legislatures and issued by the government printers. Particulars above are also taken from a summary supplied by the law draftsman, J. Christie, for the annual survey of legislation of the empire published by the Society of Comparative Legisla- tion. Useful information about legislative measures in their passage through parliament is obtainable in the Journal of the Parliaments of the Empire published by the Empire Parliamentary Association. (C. E. A. B.) FOOD SUPPLY AND NUTRITION PROBLEMS. The claim has been frequently made in official quarters that Great Britain was the best fed nation among the belligerents in Europe and was the only nation which had been able to increase its rations in the third year of the war. While this may be true it is undoubted that the diet of the nation did not reach a standard which dietitians demand. It is likely that there was still a grave deficiency in calcium, iron and possibly of vitamins of class B. The consumption of vitamin C had probably declined. Rationing during 1941 was in much the position that it was in 1940. Bread was unrationed but its price was con- trolled. The government-rationed foods were meat, butter, margarine, cooking fats, cheese, sugar, jam, tea and eggs. Milk was rationed more by supply and price than by government action. Fruits, which were almost entirely home grown, were rationed by scarcity and their price was controlled. Vegetables were fairly plentiful though their price was often above that of peace time. Canned meats were controlled by a points rationing scheme. While the government, quite rightly, attempted to safeguard the diet of pregnant and nursing mothers and their children up to the age of five, no precautions had been taken to feed adolescents or young working women adequately. The diet of the child on leaving school and entering trade often depreciated because at school there was an oppor- tunity unfortunately lessening owing to shortage of obtaining cheap milk. Out in the world the adolescent: needs more and better food than he gets while at school and the probability is that he was getting less and worse. Significantly among women between the ages of 20 and 30 the tuberculosis rate had increased and, generally speaking, the decline of tuberculosis a feature of health statistics for many years had been arrested. These facts are doubtless in part due to inadequate nutrition. Judging by health statistics the feeding of the nation must have been satisfactory, if not optimal, and the ministries of food, health and agriculture could congratulate themselves on that achievement. It is clear from reports from the ministry of health that there existed a widespread fear of epidemic diseases comparable to the waves of influenza which swept the globe in 1918 and 1919, but these, up to the first months of 1942, had fortunately been absent. One explanation may well be that the large part of the population which had entered the army and war work was fed better than ever before ; that mothers and young children of the working classes had had cheap or free milk and that unemployment had decreased from a figure of over a million to one measured by one or two hundred thousand. Those who were rationed by poverty in the past and not by government were finding themselves able to purchase food up to their rations. Bread. The situation as regards bread was much where it was in 1940. The average dietitian pressed on the government the advantage of a wheatmeal bread fortified by calcium. Many would have liked to see such a bread made compulsory. There were other reasons, not dietetic, for the change over. Shipping space would have been FOOD SUPPLY AND NUTRITION PROBLEMS saved, for example, and although such a change might have resulted in a decrease of milk, pork and eggs (for the offal of wheat goes to iced cows, pigs and hens) there would have been a gain on balance of iron and vitamins of class B in diet. In this situation the government havered. It promised a white loaf fortified with synthetic vitamin B Jf but although it was said that this should be introduced in May 1941, only a few districts e.g., South Wales -had been provided with such fortified bread by the end of 1941. A promise was given that early in 1942 areas in the north- west would be included. Whether obstacles to the plan lay in the milling and baking industries or the manufacture of synthetic vitamin B 1 or elsewhere, is not known. As regards a wheatmeal loaf the government itself widely advertised an 85 per cent extraction flour and bread made from it. But despite the advertisement only 7 per cent of the bread consumption was represented by this wheatmeal bread, which resulted in a negligible gain in shipping space and but little gain in dietetics. The reason given was that the people do not take readily to brown bread. The ministry of food never hoped for a conversion of more than 25 per cent of the white bread caters to brown bread. (The army was expected to con- sume half and half.) The game seems hardly worth the candle. There could be little doubt that the temper of the country was such that if it could have been shown that a consumption of nothing but 85 per cent extracted wheat was a military necessity such a loaf would willingly have been accepted. That it is dictctically desirable had made no impression, due to the lack of education of the people in dietetics. There is one dietetic disadvantage in a change from white to wheatmeal bread ; that is the fact, now definitely demonstrated, though the work was still unpublished in early 1942, that such a change would lower the calcium uptake from our diet. That uptake is often dangerously low arid would be made lower still. The phytates in wheat- meal flour militate against calcium absorption. They sterilize not only the small amount of calcium of the wheatmeal but in addition some of that of the rest of the diet. To counteract this action the committees of nutri- tion of the Lister Institute and the Medical Research Institute recommended the addition of 14 ox. of calcium carbonate to a sack of wheatmeal flour, arid to safeguard the calcium uptake of the eaters of white bread an addition of 7 oz. to the sack of white flour. No steps appeared to have been taken to implement these sound suggestions. What difficulty stood in the way was not known. It could not be due to the public and it was suggested that it was due to the opposition of the milling industry. Even in the production of unfortified wheatmeal, looseness in the drafting of a statutory order was such that a mixture of white flour and bran met the ministry of food's demand for an 85 per cent extraction flour. Supplementary but not compulsory instructions which would have resulted in an 85 per cent extraction were obeyed by smaller firms but disregarded by some of the larger firms. The future will almost certainly lie with a bread enriched by addition of vitamins of the B class, iron and calcium. Onions. Some other experiments of the ministry of food may be mentioned. In 1940 the onion crop was good but owing to the loss of imports from foreign countries was equivalent to only a small percentage of the national consumption. Consequently the price of onions threat- ened to soar. The ministry of food stepped in and fixed Keystone ] WHEAT I'l ELDS ON THE SUSSEX DOWNS. THIS LAND WAS FORMERLY JHvKKLICT AND JIAD REVERTED TO GQRSE, BRAMBLES AND ROUGH GRASS a price and promptly onions disappeared off the market. The price of spring onions was not controlled. In the spring of 1941 onions in their second youth were offered as spring onions and the ministry stepped in again with a definition of a spring onion. Another consequence of the price-control of onions was the rise in the price of leeks, which touched lod. each in the open market. The ministries of food and agriculture proposed not to be caught again and made arrangements for a great increase in the acreage laid down to grow onions, and people were asked to register for the purchase of onions. Many when they discovered that they would get only 2 Ib. in the year, refused to register, with the result that it appeared as if each registered person might get 12 Ib. an amount not to be despised. But the English climate stepped in. The onion crop was poor and the bulbs formed were often of the bottle-neck variety which do not keep. The hopes of the registered person fell to 2 Ib. again and it became doubtful whether he would get one. Vitamin C Supplies. When oranges disappeared, owing to shipping shortage, the infant welfare clinics had no obvious source of vitamin C for the babies. Swede juice, made by mincing, gently cooking and squeezing the pulp through muslin, would have done, but the clinics preferred black currant puree. In 1941 the government com- mandeered the black currant crop and fruit canneries in the black currant season made black currant pulp on government instructions and sent it to a central assembly place, where it was pooled, standardized and made into juice or into puree according to the age of the baby for whom it was intended. Again the vagaries of the English climate intervened. The vitamin C figure of the 1941 crop of black currants was the lowest known and created the greatest difficulty in producing an article with a reasonable content. Hose hips, the richest common source of vitamin C, were also collected and syrup made from them was to be placed I on sale early in 1942. It is interesting to note that the MAN POWER, CONTROL AND USE OF Tk* Times} A WEST OF ENGLAND FACTORY WHERE MILLSTONES, SUCH AS ARE USED FOR THE GRINDING OF WHKATMKAL, ARE MADE. MILL- STONES ARE EXPORTED TO MANY PARTS OF THE EMPIRE further north the greater was the amount of vitamin C in the hips. Presumably it is due to some varietal reason it can hardly bo a dispensation of providence and this needs investigation. The Russians have long known and used rose hips in countering scurvy and have made, through their means and others, the colonization of the Arctic Circle a possibility. Conclusions. On the whole the rationing system had worked well. The attempts of the ministry to safeguard the physical welfare of the young and their mothers were laudable and efficacious, and while their incursions into the control and sale of eggs and onions were less fortunate, their handling of the food situation was good and well- meaning if timid, especially, it has been suggested, in its relations with vested interests. If there is one thing which is certain it is that the feeding of a country, either in peace or war, can never be satisfactory till the agricul- tural policy of the country is subordinate to the demands of the ministry of food and these, in turn, subordinated to those of the ministry of health. BIBLIOGRAPHY. Lancet, 1941 : articles headed Parlia- ment throughout the year ; 1942, vol. i, p. 83. Chem. and Industry, 1941, vol. 60, p. 903. Lancet, 1941, vol. ii, p. 361 (Widdowson and Alington). (V. M.) MAN POWER, CONTROL AND USE OF. Control of man power in war-time arises from a number of reasons. First and most important is the scarcity of labour and the need for economizing its use. Under normal conditions the market system effectively solves this problem, attracting labour to those jobs and localities where it is most needed. In war-time such a solution raises further problems. Particularly under a " cost plus " system of contracting, wages tend to rise sharply and labour turnover tends to be great, with consequent loss of time and inefficient planning of production. More- over, the fact that men are conscripted into the services makes doubtful the equity of such a system. Secondly, therefore, control is a deterrent of inflation. Thirdly, production in war-time often demands a greater mobility of labour between industries, occupations and localities than can be obtained in the short run without control. Munition industries must be vigorously expanded and labour attracted from very dissimilar types of work, factories must be situated with regard to strategic con- siderations and transport and power facilities, and labour drafted to the new sites ; while some localized industries must be expanded and labour brought from other districts. To achieve these changes with the speed requisite to the planning of campaigns and production, control is needed. Finally, this war has presented difficult problems of organization the expeditious clearing of ships from ports, the clearing of air-raid damage and the like and the mobilization of labour for tasks of this kind has suggested the need for direct control. These are the basic reasons, each of which presents many aspects, why control in the economy has had to be extended to the control of the labour (and consequently of the lives) of men and women. Methods. Various methods of control have been used. The oldest is the reservation from the armed forces of men above certain ages, according to their occupations. Men in occupations of especial importance to the national effort, e.g., engineers of various categories, would be reserved at early ages, whereas men whose labour was judged less necessary and the supply of which could safely be curtailed would be reserved only at a greater age the younger men of those occupations would be available for military service. This was, of course, a device to maintain in employment certain types of workers considered to be of greater value in the production of warlike stores, exports or essential goods for the home market than they would be in the armed forces. Such men might be allowed to volunteer for the services, e.g., as tradesmen, for whom modern war makes great demands. This flexible system allowed continuous changes in the ages of reserva- tion as more men could be taken into the armed forces and as experience or events showed there was, e.g., labour surplus to requirements in certain groups. It has, however, proved difficult to rectify mistakes in the other direction : men who have joined the services are not easily recalled into civilian life. A weakness in the method of reservation by occupations was that, though it avoided the British failure of the war of 1914-18 to retain in industry men needed on the " home front," it did not ensure that there should be reserved from the services only those men actually engaged on essential production. And by reserving men who, despite their occupational qualifications, were not so engaged it both wasted man power and encouraged men to do other than vital work. This is not to suggest that the method of reservation by occupation was a mistake ; it was probably the most efficient way of making a provisional distinction between those who could and those who could not be spared from industry to the services. But as the man power position became more stringent it became desirable to look more closely into the actual work being done by reserved men. Reservation by occupation and age-group was by February 1942 in process of being changed to individual reservation according to the importance of the work being done by the individual. The change was being brought about by the simple expedient of raising by one year every month the age of reservation in the different occupations. Each month, therefore, a number of men become dereserved and the importance of the work they are doing is considered. It is upon an assessment of the importance of the work and of the scarcity of their skill that a decision is made as to whether these men are allowed to continue in their employ- ment (as, of course, most will be allowed to do), whether they are transferred to other and more vital work, or whether they can be released from industry to serve in the forces. Each month, therefore, from January 1942 MAN POWER, CONTROL AND USE OF the work of a section of the men of the community was to be considered in relation to the needs of the country for men for the armed forces, for munitions and instruments of war, for civilian supplies and services, and to the supply of women to take the places of men in industry. The ministry of labour and national service has power to register for national service men between 18 and 51 years and to direct them to leave their employment and if necessary their locality to do essential work, and the registration of men for national service or the dereservation of men provides opportunities for such direction. How- ever, local labour supply committees report upon shortages and surpluses of different classes of workers, and men have been moved on the basis of such intelligence. The ministry of labour and national service is empowered to direct women to register under the Registration for Employ- ment Order, and women so registering may be directed to take up work of national importance. It was the intention to register women up to the age of 40 years by the spring of 1942. In general, unmarried women between 20 and 30 years may be directed into one of the women's branches of the services, although on registering they are invited to express a preference between the services and industry. These women are pre-eminently the so-called mobile women who will, if necessary, be directed to take up work of national importance away from their homes, though women over 30 without domestic ties may also, in the event, be called upon to leave their homes. It is the announced intention of the ministry of labour and national service to use the services of married women and mothers to the greatest possible extent by finding work for them near their homes, by arranging where possible part-time work and by organiz- ing the care of children. Extension of Principle of Conscription, In this way, the principle of conscription has been extended from military service for men to include the conscription of women into the armed forces, and finally to cover the direction of men and women to work according to the requirements and the interests of the state. And a further extension of the interests of the state into the activities of citizens is marked by the registration of young persons of both sexes, who will not be required but will be persuaded to undertake in their leisure hours activities which will be of immediate help to the nation, e.g., enrolment in the Home Guard, or which will fit them for better service in the course of time, as for example by joining the Boy Scout or Girl Guide movements. A better utilization of labour is achieved by the require- ment of the ministry of labour and national service for many men and women who have registered for national service or for employment to be engaged for employment only through labour exchanges. In this way, the movement of labour can be guided into the required channels and an influx of labour prevented either into industries which it is aational policy to contract or into localities where, for any reason, an increase in the population is not desired. These are the important methods of control, though there is other action by the state which may be allowed to fall within this term. In the ports, for example, schemes have been worked out and adopted whereby a pool of labour is formed which can be directed to where it is most urgently needed for the loading or unloading of vessels. Agreements have been achieved between the state and trade unions whereby trade union rules and customs are held in abeyance during war-time to allow, e.g., dilution and the employment of women on what previously were Keystont] GIRLS CALLED UP FOR NATIONAL SliRVlCK- REGISTERING AT THEIR LOCAL EXCHANGE men's jobs. Strikes, without notice of intention, have been declared illegal. These are methods of control in that, whether or not by agreement, they alter the normal methods of work or the peace-time contours of the labour market. Problems Associated \vith Control. There are a number of difficult problems inseparable from the controls adopted which have had, of necessity, an effect on the ways these controls have been used. Most troublesome, perhaps, of all have been those connected with the direction of labour entailing movement of people from their homes or working in places inconveniently situated in relation to their homes. Moving workers from one locality to another encounters least reluctance when they are enabled to be accompanied by their families. But in war-time this is clearly very difficult. To find housing accommodation for the families of the many workers needed to man new factories has in many districts been made less easy by the residence of people evacuated from danger areas : to build accommoda- tion would place an unbearable strain on man power. Hence recourse is necessary to the splitting of families and the billeting of workers. This in turn raises problems of feeding arrangements, which have been partly solved by the establishment of works canteens and British Restau- rants. Clearly to use man power wisely and efficiently something more is needed than policy and decision. It is necessary to help workers to adjust themselves to new lives, and this must make demands upon the goodwill of the public towards transferred workers. Transport presents another difficulty. Workers are moved to factories situated far from their homes and new factories are built in outlying districts. When railways are already under pressure from increased freight traffic, road services reduced by fuel rationing and impeded by black-out restrictions, the organization of travelling facili- ties for war workers to a degree that will maintain efficiency presents real problems. Here again co-operation by the general public is very desirable so that unnecessary travel may be avoided. One should mention, too, the strain put upon family life. The discomforts that arise when all adult members of the family are working or when they are separated are real, but in large part unavoidable though they can be eased i6 POST-WAR RECONSTRUCTION by provision of meals at the factory, the allowance of time for shopping and the provision of efficient transport. But the difficulties arising from a young family are less easily dismissed and unless met must necessarily reduce the woman power available for work. Up to the spring of 1942 little organized assistance had been extended to the mother, who had had largely to rely, if she could and would, on the good offices of neighbours or relatives, and few nursery schools had been established. It is difficulties of all these kinds which hamper the use of the very complete powers the state now possesses for mobilizing the man and woman power of the country. It is true that the use of Britain's labour resources has been made less efficient by the absence of any visible long- term programme matching the use of labour with the programmes of production and of the armed forces. The country was hampered by shortages of particular types of labour required for the development of production. And this could, to some extent, have been avoided had the requirements of labour been considered in detail when the future production of the different departments was decided upon. It could then have been discovered to what extent, if at all, these plans were incompatible with one another by virtue of their rivalry in the labour market, and to what extent assistance could be rendered to achieve these plans by taking steps to have adequate supplies of labour of the different skills and grades available at the dates at which they would be expected to be wanted. For, it must be remembered, it may be more difficult to train workers than to build factories or even to equip them. The same necessity is evident for the planning of the location of factories. The same care is needed to obtain full information of the demands of different departments and of the labour supply available in a particular area. It is planning of this kind and resolution, at an early stage, to obviate rivalry between different departments and even between different contractors, that is necessary if obstacles to an extension of production are not to occur because of shortages in the labour supply. On the other hand, in so surprising a war, with so many changes in strategic needs arising from so many appearances and disappearances in the ranks of the countries fighting the Axis, efficient and consistent planning of the use of British labour would have been very difficult indeed. (J. S.) POST-WAR RECONSTRUCTION. A Survey of Thought and Action in 1941, Reconstruction is a single word, but it covers a multitude of things. Looking back, at the end of January 1942, over the last year, one noted many plans suggested by planners, and a number of things done (or at any rate entered on the list of agenda, as things to be done) by statesmen. A brief record of both is attempted in this article. (a) In the realm of recent thought, and among the many plans suggested by planners, there were four lines of approach which seemed to claim particular notice. The first may be called the line of American approach. Here Mr. C. K. Streit, who had already published before the war his book called Union Now, which led to the movement of Federal Union, added, in the course of 1941, a new book with the title of Union Now with Britain. It is a vigorous and moving plea for an immediate federal union mainly on the basis of the American constitution, but with some modifications in the direction of the British cabinet system between the United States, on the one side, and Great Britain and the five Dominions of Australia, Canada, Eire, New Zealand and the Union of South Africa, on the other. Such a federal union, proclaimed and inaugurated even during the course of hostilities, would in Mr. Streit's view help to end the war, to establish a permanent peace, and to ensure the security of the world. Professor Catlin, an Englishman who has held a chair of political science in an American university, added a pendant to Mr. Streit's Union Now with Britain in a book entitled One Anglo-American Nation. His book, too, is largely directed to the union of the United States with the British Commonwealth, in a common " Anglosaxony." But it has also a European side, and it looks to France and the northern States of Europe as well as to the Anglo-Saxon world ; nor has its argument the swift immediacy which is a feature of Mr. Streit's plan. Pro- fessor Catlin is wedded to British ideas of gradual and progressive effort ; and his scheme is a scheme not for a world at war, but rather for a post-war world. A second line of approach may be called the line of the British Commonwealth. This was the line followed by Mr. Lionel Curtis in a brief but pregnant pamphlet published in the summer of 1941 under the title of Decision. Mr. Curtis deeply versed in the conduct as well as the study of affairs for over thirty years past, and already concerned in the first beginnings of South African union in the first decade of this century had already published, as long ago as 1916, a plea for imperial federation in a work called The Problem of the Commonwealth. He renews the plea, but he also extends its scope, in his Decision of 1941. He still argues in favour of turning the British Common- wealth into a federal State, with a federal parliament and cabinet competent for purposes of foreign policy, defence, and the measures of finance required for foreign policy and defence, but with the parliament and cabinet of each member-State still retaining control of the social composi- tion and the economic structure of its own community, and thus retaining the power to pass its own immigration laws and to impose its own tariffs. He now adds, however, a now extension to the scope of his plan. He puts to himself the question, " What of countries like Belgium, Holland, Denmark and Norway ? " He answers, " Let us offer them the chance of joining the union on the same terms that Britain and the Dominions have already estab- lished between themselves." He puts to himself the further point, that " we cannot ignore our responsibilities after this war to our allies, Czechoslovakia, Poland, Yugoslavia and Greece " ; and he meets the point by suggesting that if the democracies of western Europe unite with those of the British Commonwealth, the union could be opened, on exactly the same footing, to our eastern allies. On Mr. Curtis's scheme, therefore, a federated British Commonwealth becomes a European magnet, and draws into its company, on terms of equality with Great Britain and the British Dominions, European States both in the east and the west. Indeed he goes further still. He suggests that when Germany had acquired a govern- ment responsible to Germans at large, the time would be ripe for her inclusion. He even dreams that the miracle which Mr. C. K. Streit has suggested the union of the United States with the British Commonwealth would be less unlikely to happen if the people of the United States could be presented with a federated British Commonwealth which they could join without surrendering (as in the scheme of Decision no member-State would be required to sur- render) their control of their own immigration laws and their own tariffs. Scheme for a Federated Europe* A third line of approach POST-WAR RECONSTRUCTION may be called the European. Unlike the first two (which both, if in different ways, depend on the basic idea of Anglo-Saxon community, irrespective of continents), this line of approach depends on the basic idea of the com- munity of the continent to which we belong. One of the representatives of this line of approach is Sir George Young, in his book called Federalism and Freedom. A European diplomatist, versed in European affairs, Sir George is perhaps in the line of descent from Aristidc Briand and his conception of a United States of Europe. He advocates a federation of Europe in which no member-State, unless it is itself federal , may have a population of more than 10,000,000. It follows on his plan that all States with a population greater than that amount France, Great Britain, Germany, Poland and the rest must decompose themselves first into federations in order to join, along with the other and smaller States, the Union of Free Federated Europe, which would thus be a federation itself consisting, in large part, of federations. The model for this Union of Free Federated Europe is to be found in the constitution of Switzerland. Thus Europe will be set fare da se and to achieve its own salvation (with an economic constitution on the Portuguese model added to a political constitution based on the Swiss) ; and the United States, and perhaps the British Dominions, free from the problem of Europe, will cultivate their own gardens. This is perhaps an airy scheme ; but it brings into relief a fundamental difficulty of British policy which inevitably confronts all makers of plans the difficulty that Great Britain is trilateral, touching on one side the United States, on another the British Dominions, and on another the continent of Europe. Any feasible plan must be accommodated to this fundamental fact, which is also a fundamental difficulty. A sober regard for this fact and this difficulty is particularly shown in two broadsheets issued by the organization called Political and Economic Planning, in the latter half of 1941. The first (No. 172), which goes by the name of " The Future of Germany," suggests that the post-war settlement of Europe should be along the lines of the British Commonwealth rather than of a written constitution in other words that, instead of the British Commonwealth being first federated and then used as a magnet to attract western and eastern Europe (as Mr. Curtis suggests), it should remain unfederated, as it stands, and should serve as a model for some union of Europe or some system of a number of regional unions in Europe. Not only is the British Commonwealth to serve as a model for Europe, according to the argument of this pamphlet : Britain must also take an initiative and incur responsibility in Europe, " in the long-term interests of the European majority and in the convergent interests of the U.S.A. and the Dominions." The second pamphlet (No. 182), which is called " Britain and Europe," carries these ideas into further detail. Assuming that European unity involves the leadership of some great power, and that Britain is faced by the duty of acting as that power, it seeks to suggest the basic principles of a European common- wealth which Britain might take the lead in establishing. On the political side the argument is once more advanced that the approach should be empirical, and based on the experience of the British Commonwealth as it stands : on the social and economic side a number of suggestions are offered (particularly in the matter of the training of a service for European reconstruction) which deserve the most careful study. The general pattern which emerges is that of a new Europe aided and for the time being led by Britain, with a European conference at its centre on the model of the imperial conference, and with that conference regularly attended by all foreign ministers, served by a strong permanent secretariat, and regularly meeting in London for the discussion of European affairs. This is but a jejune sketch of the gist of these two pamph- lets, which every reader is advised to read and ponder for himself. They show a sobriety and responsibility of judgment which should win them the closest attention. (6) Active Developments. In the realm of action, and of things done or placed on the list of agenda by statesmen, there is less to note on the subject of reconstruction, but the record, even though brief, is pregnant with importance for the future. In the first half of the year 1940 it was the development of British relations with France (tending, as it then seemed, to a closer and closer union) which appeared to be of cardinal importance. The climax of this development which also proved, for the moment, to be its end was the offer of Anglo-French union made by the British Prime Minister on June 16, 1940. What negotiations had preceded the scheme, and how far it had been sought on the French side as well as offered on the British, we do not yet know. What we do know is that the scheme now hangs, as it were, in a vacant interstellar space, rejected by France in her hour of ruin, and left silently on the record by Britain. What we may guess, and what many of us cannot but deeply believe, is that in any scheme for the reconstruction of Europe a new and reconstructed France must be drawn into close alliance and active co-operation. A new Europe will need the light and leading which we may hope that a new France, true again to her old traditions, will wish and be able to give- Mean while, in the course of 1941, the development of statesmanship turned in other directions. It turned, in the first place, in the direction of the United States, and towards closer arid closer co-operation between Britain and the United States. The result was seen in the Atlantic Charter, as it came to be called, of August 1941. Perhaps the greatest and most cardinal fact of this charter was not its substance, but its signatories ; not the noun " Charter," but the adjective " Atlantic." In a word, the fact of a joint declaration by the President of the United States and the British Prime Minister was the supreme fact. The actual substance of the charter was inevitably of a very general character ; but some of the provisions (though even they must obviously be clarified and specified further) were more concrete. Among these were the provision for enjoyment by all States of access on equal terms to the trade and raw materials of the world needed for their economic prosperity, and the provision for economic collaboration between all nations for securing improved labour standards, economic advancement and social security. The charter generally, since its issue in the August of 1941, has received a new measure of adhesion and a new wealth of signatures both from the Allied govern- ments in Great Britain and from the twenty-six govern- ments who endorsed it at Washington on Jan. i, 1942. " Europe in Britain." Another direction in which statesmanship turned was that of the formation of some- thing in the nature of a common council of the governments of the British Empire and the Allied governments now resident on British soil. Interallied War Conferences began to be held at St. James's Palace on June 12, 1941 ; a second followed on Sept. 24, at which the Atlantic Charter was accepted ; and in these meetings may already be seen something of a system of consultation and co- 1 8 PRICES, INCOMES AND STANDARDS OF LIVING THE ALLIED AND IMPERIAL CONFERENCE AT ST. JAMES'S PALACE, LONDON, IN JUNE 1941. ON THE KING'S LEFT IS GENERAL SIKORSKI AND ON HIS RIGHT THE DUTCH PRIME MINISTER. MR. CHURCHILL IS AT THE LEFT OF THE PICTURE operation between the British Commonwealth on the one side and the States of western and eastern Europe on the other. Whether or no the British Commonwealth becomes a model, or even a magnet, for Europe, and whether or no it assumes a responsibility for leadership in Europe, it is already engaged in a close connexion with Europe. This is a natural result of the residence on British soil of a number of European governments (the Norwegian, the Dutch, and the Belgian : the Polish, the Czechoslovak, the Yugoslav, and the Greek), and of the fact that no small part of Europe is now, in a sense, domiciled, so far as its governments arc concerned, in Britain. This present situation of " Europe in Britain " is the natural germ for a future policy of " Britain in Europe/' on the lines sketched in the planning broadsheets already mentioned. The Interallied War Conferences are already a European organ, which may assume a permanent character, in a new and amplified form, as new developments provide the stimulus. In this connexion the proceedings of the second conference, of Sept. 24, were especially important. Not only did the members of the conference (including the representatives of the Soviet Union) express then- adherence to the common principles of the Atlantic Charter, and their intention to co-operate in giving them effect. They also adopted a resolution in favour of building up a common supply of food and raw materials for the post-war needs of European countries after their liberation, and for the establishment of a joint bureau for this purpose, reporting to a committee of Allied representatives. Here is a germ, which may well grow, of European co-operation in the work of reconstruc- tion. A third and last direction in which statesmanship turned was that of the preparation of what may 'be called regional federations, or unions, between contiguous Euro- pean States. Having fallen because they were divided, States have resolved to stand united. As long ago as November 1940 Poland and Czechoslovakia drew together for this purpose, and in January of the present year (1942) the governments of both countries agreed on a number of essential points with regard to their future confederation a confederation which they desire should embrace other States with which their interests are vitally linked. The governments of Greece and Yugoslavia were also drawn together, and initiated, almost simultaneously, a movement towards Balkan union, which was warmly welcomed by the Polish and Czechoslovak governments as a collaborator in assisting the security and developing the prosperity of the region between the Baltic and the Aegean seas. The regional reconstruction of Europe is thus already begun. This survey has been confined to post-war reconstruction in the broader sense in which it affects Europe at large. Some few words may be added in conclusion on reconstruc- tion as it affects Great Britain and so far as it was being planned by the government in 1941. (Nothing can be said in regard to the numerous voluntary societies and groups which were also engaged in planning.) From January 1941, the minister without portfolio, Mr. Greenwood, as chairman of a group of ministers, and pending the forma- tion of a separate ministry for this purpose towards the end of the war, was responsible for considering the practical problems of transition from war to peace and for outlining a policy, for the immediate post-war years, likely to command national support. Lord Reith, the minister of works and buildings, acting within the framework of Mr. Greenwood's general study, and assisted by a small group of ministers, was responsible for considering the general problems of town and country planning, immedi- ately in the areas damaged by the war, but ultimately on a general scheme. He appointed committees (such as the Uthwatt committee for the examination of the problem of sites in bombed areas, and the Scott committee for the consideration of building and constructional development in rural areas) : he instituted a consultative panel of advisers on physical planning ; and he had before him the report of the Barlow commission (issued in January 1940) on the distribution of the industrial population. (E. B.) PRICES, INCOMES AND STANDARDS OF LIVING. From the outbreak of the war to the end of 1941, wholesale prices in Great Britain rose by about (K) per cent, retail prices by about 30 per cent and wage rates by about 20 per cent. Behind these statements of facts, there are hidden vast government schemes of restriction and control of materials of all kinds, rationing, control and price-fixing of goods sold retail, and wage- fixing and wage advances and increases in the hours of labour, and increases in output and the national income. Wholesale Prices. The increase in wholesale prices was not at the same rate during the 2 years and 4 months since the outbreak of the war, nor was it distributed equally throughout the various items, price records of which are included in the construction of price indices. The summary table at the top of the following page, gives some detail which will illustrate the history of prices from 1939 to 1941. With the change over from a peace economy to a war economy, and the complete dislocation of foreign trade and shipping, costs of importing goods naturally increased in addition, there were inevitable increases in rates of insurance on ships and cargoes consequently there was a greater increase in wholesale prices of food and tobacco compared with those of materials at the immediate out- break of the war. On the average, in the first four months of the war, Sept.-Dec. 1939, the wholesale price index rose by 16-3 per cent, the increase in the food and tobacco group being 22*1 per cent and that in the materials group being 13*4 per cent. Where imports bulk largely in British economy, e.g., cereals and cotton, the percentage increases were greatest, 35-9 per cent and 32-0 per cent respectively. On the other hand, the increase for coal was only 5*7 per cent. On the average, for the year 1940, prices rose, compared PRICES, INCOMES AND STANDARDS OF LIVING 19 with Aug. 1939, by 39-3 per cent. The largest increases were for cereals (64-3 per cent), cotton (54-0 per cent) and wool (53*4 per cent), and the smallest was that for coal (19*3 per cent). BOARD OF TRADE WHOLESALE PRICE INDEX (1930 - 100) Group Index Numbers Percentage Increase from Aug. 1939 AUK. 1939 Sept.- Dec. 1939 Year 1940 Year 1941 Dec. 1941 Sept.- I>ec. 1939 Year 1940 Year 1941 Dec. 194^ Cereals . Meat, Fish and Eggs . Other Food and Tobacco 84-0 84-3 100' I II4-I 98-9 II6-8 138-0 114-6 I43'3 150-4 118-1 166-5 168-0 1 16-0 167-5 35-9 17-3 16-7 64-3 35-9 43-1 79-0 40-1 66-1 100 -0 38-8 67-2 All Food and Tobacco 90-4 HO'4 132-7 146-1 I50-5 22*1 47-3 61-7 66-6 Coal Iron and Steel Non - Ferrous Metals Cotton . Wool . Other Textiles Chemicals and Oils . Miscellaneous . 117-4 128-6 100-7 81-4 102-6 74'i 93-0 96-1 I24-I I35-I 107-0 107-4 120-3 92-3 99-9 II5'9 140-1 159-2 123-2 125-3 157-3 108-5 117-1 142-6 159-5 i8i-x 123-9 138-2 170-1 120*2 126-9 169-1 162-8 l8l-7 124-1 142-4 171-9 126-5 129-7 172-6 5*7 5'i 6-3 32-0 17-2 24-6 7'4 I9'5 19*3 23-8 22-4 54-0 53-4 46-5 25-9 48-4 35-8 40-8 23-0 69-9 65-8 62-3 36-5 76-0 38-6 4i'3 23'2 75-o 67-5 70-6 39-5 79-6 All Industrial Materials, etc. IO2'2 II5-9 I38-4 155-8 158-4 13-4 35-4 52-5 55-o All items 98-1 114-1 136-6 152-6 155-9 16-3 39-3 55-5 59*o Basic Materials Intermediate Products Manufactured Articles 94'5 104-0 108-7 1177 118-9 116-8 M7'3 145-0 133-7 166-7 165-1 148-4 170-5 167-7 150-3 24-6 I4'3 7-4 56-0 38-4 23-0 76-5 58-8 36-5 80-5 61-3 38-3 In the next year the rise in prices generally was slowed down. The average for the year 1941 was 55*5 per cent above Aug. 1939, i.e. only 11-7 per cent above the general level of the year 1940. The change in the tempo of increasing prices may be indicated by reference to comparisons of Aug. 1939 with Aug. 1940 and Aug. 1941. In the first 12 months of the war the general level of prices rose by 43 per cent (16-3 per cent was the average increase in the first 4 months, Sept.- Dec. 1939), in the next 12 months (Aug. 1940 to Aug. 1941)* the general level of prices increased by 9 per cent. In the next four months, from Aug. 1941 to Dec. 1941, the increase was 1-8 per cent. Thus the gradual monthly change declined. During 1941, many prices were for practical purposes stabilized, the relevant indices hardly changing at all. The following table shows the individual changes in the year 1941. BOARD OF TRADE WHOLESALE PRICE INDEX ? ; Relative Changes (Dec. 1940 = 100 ; Increase -H, Decrease ) Cereals li 18 u,o s^ ll i Iron and Steel ji 3 3 I Other Textiles Chemicals and Oils j -M4 ~ 4 + 3 4- 7 + I + 1 M. 4-3 + 15 + 6 + 7 The level of prices of the meat, fish and egg group actually declined during the 12 months. The largest increases continued to be in the cereals and textile groups. The 7 imrsj COMMUNAL MEALS IN ONE OF THE BRITISH RESTAURANTS INSTALLED IN PLYMOUTH FOR FEEDING THE WORKERS WHOSE HOMES ARE OUTSIDE THE CITY With war-time control and stabilization of some prices, and with restrictions on freedom of enterprise, and with lack of competition amongst traders, the meaning and purpose of wholesale price indices change. The Board of Trade figures do enable us to keep in a concise form records of changes which occur during war conditions, but some doubt must exist as to the exact comparability of the series of indices which is now being computed with that computed before the war. There are probably difficulties in obtaining quotations of prices of certain goods which are exactly comparable with those used before the war started. It is interesting to make a comparison between the changes which took place in the first two years of the present war with those which occurred in the first two years of the war of 1914-18. According to the Statist index of wholesale prices, the change was an increase of 61 per cent from Aug. 1939 to Aug. 1941, the indices being 90-4 and 145-1 respectively. According to the Economist index of wholesale prices, the increase was 51 per cent, the respective indices being 70-3 and 106-4. From July 1914 to July 1916, the Statist index showed an increase of 58 per cent and the Economist an increase of 62 per cent. Approximately, the same change took place in the first two years of the present war as occurred between 1914 and 1916, an increase of some 50 to 60 per cent. Retail Prices. For the first two years of the war of 1914-18, the Ministry of Labour's cost of living index shows a rise of some 45 to 50 per cent, while for the same period the food index rose by 61 per cent. These are obtained by comparing July 1916 with July 1914. For the present period, the same official index indicates a rise in the cost of living from Aug. 1939 to Aug. 1941 of 28 per cent, the food figure being 22 per cent. There is a striking difference between the recent course of these retail indices compared with the experience of 25 years ago, and that of the wholesale indices. In the present war, government management, by rationing, control and subsidies, regulated the increase in the cost of living to barely half of that which took place in the less restricted conditions of the first two years of the last war. In the first month of the present war the official cost of living index rose 10 points from 155 at Sept. i, 1939, to 165 at Oct. i, 1939, an increase of 6 per cent. During 1940 the index rose from 174 at Jan. i to 196 at Jan. i, 1941, an increase of 12 J per cent. During the year 1941, the index changed very little, from 196 to 200, an increase 20 PRICES, INCOMES AND STANDARDS OF LIVING of 2 per cent. The slowing down of the increase in whole- sale prices previously noted was thus accompanied by a similar slowing down of the increase in the cost of living index. Of the constituent items of the cost of living index the most important is food. With price regulations, the increase in the price of food during the war period was not great, apart from that which took place on the outbreak of the war. During 1940, on the average, food prices rose by 9J- per cent. During 1941, food prices actually declined on the average by about 4 per cent. For the md'st part, during this period, prices were stable. The chief cause of the decline was the lowering of the price of fish and eggs. The next most important item in the cost of living index is rent. This index has been practically unchanged since the war. It was 162 in Aug. and Sept. 1939 and rose to 164 in May 1940 and remained at the same figure subse- quently. The greatest changes were those for the clothing index. This was 205-210 at the outbreak of the war; it rose to 290 at Aug. 1940, to 380 at Aug. 1941 and to 395-4 00 a t Dec. 1941. This index increased by about 90 per cent. The fuel and light figure was 180 at Aug. 1939, 182$ at Sept. 1939, 212 at Aug. 194, 228 at Aug. 1941 and 230 at Dec. 1941. There was an increase of about 28 per cent in this item. A similar change was recorded in the miscellaneous part of the cost of living index. Since the beginning of the war, meat prices increased by about 20 per cent, bread and flour prices hardly changed, sugar and milk prices increased by about 30 per cent, butter prices rose by about 20 per cent, the price of margarine by about 12 per cent and that of cheese by 30 per cent. The price of fish had increased by 100 per cent at the middle of 1941, but at the end of the year the increase was 42 per cent. During the year, the increase in the price of potatoes varied between 30 and 50 per cent. The original purpose of the cost of living index number, to measure the change in the cost of maintaining a hypo- thetical family on a certain standard of living, was neces- sarily defeated with the introduction of rationing, particu- larly of foodstuffs and clothing. Even before the war some doubt had been expressed regarding the appositeness of a cost of living index based primarily on budgets which had reference originally to the year 1904. The Ministry of Labour had, in fact, undertaken to investigate working-class budgets on a grand scale in 1937-38, and by the beginning of 1942 would probably have introduced a new index based on this more recent experience. With the onset of the war, much of this work was inevitably postponed, but some important results of their inquiries were published in the Labour Gazette of Dec. 1940. These related to some 8,900 industrial households, the original choice of house- holds having been a random one. The official cost of living index only pretended to have regard to basic expenditure, a comparatively small number of foodstuffs being included. Jams, cocoa, coffee, fruit and vegetables (apart from potatoes) were excluded. Only a few items were included under the heading of mis- cellaneous : soap, ironmongery, newspapers, tobacco, fares, etc. When the relative expenditures on the various items which were included in the original computations of the cost of living index are obtained from the results of the new 1937-38 inquiry, and these new figures are used for weight- ing purposes in the construction of a cost of living index, the final result is not very much different from the official figure. Naturally, changes occur if more importance is attached to the miscellaneous group, i.e., if entertainment, magazines, furniture, more insurances, and so* on are included as a basic part of living, and if the list of foods is extended to include fruit, preserves, etc. In effect, we should be constructing a new index number based on the 1937-38 experience of the standard of living. We can compare the average expenditure obtained from the 1937-38 inquiry with that of present day rationing. On the average, an industrial household of 3*77 persons spent 45. $d. on meat, about ij*Sd. per person. For the greater part of 1941, the meat ration was 15. 2d. per person, which, allowing for the rise of about 20 per cent in price since the war, corresponds to 11-7^. on the basis of pre-war prices. Thus, effectively, on the average, instead of 17*8^. being spent on meat, the amount is ii'jd., a reduction of about 35 per cent. On the average, in 1937-38, the industrial household bought 22-4 oz. of bacon ; the present ration for 3-77 persons is 15 oz., a reduction of 33 per cent. Again, in 1937-38, the industrial household purchased 48 o/. of butter, margarine and lard. For the greater part of 1941, a household of 3*77 persons could purchase only 30 oz., a reduction of 37 per cent. Moreover, whereas the proportion in 1937-38 of butter to margarine and lard was 3 to 2, in the present rationing scheme the proportion is i to 3. As for sugar, the average industrial household purchased 4-8 Ib. in 1937-38, and the ration during the greater part of 1941 for 3-77 persons was i -9 Ib., a reduction of 60 per cent. The ration of fats was increased by 2 oz. per person on Nov. 17, 1941, and that for sugar was increased by 4 oz. on the same date, and in addition there was an extra 8 oz. for four weeks in the summer of 1941. Apart from bread and flour, there was, for each person, a considerable reduction in the consumption of basic food- stuffs. As a result of this reduction, consumers endeav- oured to supplement their purchases by buying alterna- tives. These gradually were brought under control, and rationing was instituted in order to ensure a fair distribu- tion. Fish prices soared, compared with other prices. Clothing coupons helped to ensure a reasonable distribu- tion of necessities to all, and at the same time the purchase tax helped to discourage the buying of luxuries. We have previously referred to the great increase in the prices of clothing since the outbreak of the war. It is practically impossible to measure the reduced purchases of clothing due to the coupon scheme and the increase of prices, but there is no doubt of this reduction for the civilian popula- tion. Also, there had been a reduction of travelling facilities. Prices of entertainment were higher in 1941 than in 1938-39- The general standard of living, which included all such amenities, at the service of the community, had been reduced in certain respects. On the other hand, the public social services, health, education, etc., existed in 1941 at the same level of excellence as before the war. Standards of Living and Incomes. It is difficult to assess the extent by which standards of living had changed since the war. A vast number of people called up for war service had had their lives completely changed, so that for them a direct comparison is impossible. A part of the civilian population had undertaken part-time service of one kind or another, and had thus substituted one method of spending leisure for another. Travelling was restricted and there was probably more book reading, and certainly more smoking. Freedom of choice of ways of spending money was curtailed, and there was always present the urge to buy war savings certificates. There is one crude qualitative method of estimation that of health. Ac- cording to reports of the Ministry of Health, the nation's health had not deteriorated since the outbreak of the war. PUBLIC HEALTH IN WAR-TIME In the early part of 1941, a report referred to the large number of cases of cerebro-spinal fever in the previous year, but the death rate from this cause was considerably less than it had been formerly. Since the outbreak of the war, advances in wage rates had been made to the extent of about 5,000,000 per week. This represents an increase of about 20 per cent in wage rates. From information obtained by the Ministry of Labour (Labour Gazette, Dec. 1941), it is estimated that the increase in earnings at July 1941 over October 1938 was 42 per cent. This was due to longer hours being worked, increase in rates of wages, extension of the system of payment by results, and changes in the constitution of the labour force as to age, sex and occupation. It is pertinent to note that, whereas in Aug. 1939 there were about ij million unemployed, at the end of 1941 there were only about a quarter of a million unemployed, according to the Ministry of Labour's unemployment statistics. Thus, to compensate for an increase in cost of living of 28 per cent, the official figure (or more, if we pay regard to the fact that to make up for diminished supplies of foods which have not risen greatly in price, workers have to buy other foods, such as fish, potatoes and green vegetables, which have increased more in price), there was an average increase of earnings of 42 per cent. Official estimates of national income and expenditure published in "An Analysis of the Sources of War Finance and an Estimate of the National Income and Expenditure in 1938 and 1940 " (Cmd. 6261, 1941) enable one to get a picture of changes since the war in the distribution of the national income between private and government expendi- ture. The following figures are drawn from this report. 1938 i94i j Percentages, allow- (estimated ing for au increase ! from fourth of 20 per cent in 1 quarter of | prices 1940) 1938 1941 National Income . Personal Expenditure . Government Expenditure | Investment ( + ) or Disinvest- i ment ( ) . . Amounts in ^million 4,415 5,804 3,400 840 3,652 3,892 100 77 19 175 ~ 1,740 1094 69 I 73* J 33 I In 1938, the total national income was divided up between personal expenditure, government expenditure and investment in the proportions 77 : 19 : 4. It is estimated that the total national effort had increased by 1941 by about 9* per cent. But personal expenditure had declined from 77 out of 100 to 69 out of 109* ; thus although the total output had increased, personal expenditure had declined. On account of the war government expenditure had increased to 73* out of 109$; this being achieved partly by the increase in real output, partly by the decline in private consumption, and partly by disinvestment or drafts on capital. These figures show briefly the effects of the various schemes of price control, rationing and restric- tion. In 1938, before the war, the private individual consumed 77 per cent of his output. It is estimated that, during the year 1941, based on figures for the last quarter of 1940, the private individual consumed 69 units out of an increased output of 109*, or 63 per cent of his output. In a sense, the change from 77 to 69 gives a quantitative indication of the decline in the standard of living due to the war. The decline, in fact, is greater than this, because, under ordinary circumstances, an increasing output brings a higher standard of living. (E. C. Rh.) PUBLIC HEALTH IN WAR-TIME. After more than two years of war it was possible to review in retrospect its effect on the health of the people, with reasonably good evidence for guidance, The usual annual returns of the registrar-general for England and Wales and of the ministry of health were not available, but informa- tion could be obtained from the weekly and quarterly returns, the latter of which had been augmented in important respects, and the results of certain special inquiries had been published. An analysis made in the British Medical Journal shows that the number of deaths in large towns fell from 303,271 in 1940 to 262,467 in 1941, but the relevance of these figures may have been vitiated by movements of the population. The infant mortality rate in these towns rose from 61 to 71 per 1,000 live births. The United Kingdom came through heavy enemy attacks from the air during the winter of 1940-41 without serious impairment of the general health ' of the population, although, of course, these attacks were reflected in a substantial increase in the deaths due to violence, especially in large towns. There is no evidence that regular resort at night to air-raid shelters had any deleterious effect by itself, but it probably contributed to the fatigue of workers which may have influenced the increase of tuberculosis. Some occurrences of a kind which are usually associated with war, and some which were unexpected, deserve special mention. Acute Infectious Disease. The following table, also extracted from the British Medical Journal, shows the trend of infectious disease since 1937 as indicated by notifications. Scarlet fever Whooping-cough Diphtheria Measles Pneumonia Cerebro-spinal f everj Dysentery Enteric fever (para- typhoid and phoid) . . Measles and whooping-cough were not generally notifiable before 1940, and the significance of their prevalence cannot be judged from such short-term statistics, because of the large periodical fluctuations which normally occur. In large towns the fatality rate of measles rose from 0-26 per cent to o34 per cent, and of whooping-cough from 1-3 per cent to 1*6 per cent, but the notifications which form the basis of these rates are probably too imperfect to justify the attachment of much significance to them. It is possible, however, that the disturbance of normal life by air raids in the latter part of 1940 and the first six months of 1941 may have reduced the chance of recovery of young children contracting these infections. Mention has previously been made of the low incidence of most of the common infections of childhood after the outbreak of war, in spite of the expected effect of evac- uation of children from dangerous areas. 1 New facts have come to light which indicate that this conclusion from general observations requires to be modified . Stocks has made a care- ful analysis of the areal distribution of scarlet fever and diphtheria and shown that, while the incidence of these diseases in proportion to the child population as altered 1 Encycl. Brit. Book of the Year, 1940, Supplement, 25. 1941 1940 1939 1938 1937 57.982 ^5,573 78,201 99,4 * 3 95. 8 59 ' 169,863 53>43 i . ; 5,5 46,683 j 47,910 ' O5,72O 61,870: . 4 5,58Q 407,908 ! _ 1 49,547 47.712 42.275 i 45,"7 55.8x6, 'er 10,986 12,791 1,506 J,293 1,157 a- 6,485 2,843 1,963 4,2x0 4,066 ( y- 4,687 2,824 j 1,5*4 1,347 2,157 1 PUBLIC HEALTH IN WAR-TIME JUimiMJiKI A CL1NIC AT A SCHOUI- by evacuation fell in evacuation areas in comparison with neutral areas in the first six months or longer after war broke out, a substantial increase occurred in receiving areas. The mixing of infected immune children with susceptibles in protected areas seems therefore to have had the in- fluence which had been apprehended before evacuation took place. These diseases, however, never reached serious epidemic proportions and the effect passed off fairly soon. Cerebro-spinal Fever. The high incidence of this disease continued in 1941. Although notifications fell by nearly 2,000 as compared with 1940, the figure far exceeds any- thing recorded in other previous years. Cerebro-spinal fever seems to be repeating the behaviour it followed in the war of 1914-18, and a high but falling prevalence is to be expected so long as hostilities last. Accurate records of its power to kill are not yet available, but it is evident that the use of the sulphonamide group of drugs has very greatly reduced the case-mortality rate at all ages. Diphtheria* The increase in the amount of diphtheria after two years of falling incidence is disappointing in the light of the great efforts made by local authorities to immunize children in their areas. It is probably correct to say, however, that very few populous places in Great Britain have yet attained that proportion of immune children (about 50 per cent) which has been found necessary in other countries before any significant effect on the volume of the disease can be expected. Like other infec- tious diseases diphtheria has its periodical ebb and flow, and it may be that there would have been still more of it but for immunization. Investigations in Liverpool by Prof. H. D. Wright demonstrate that variations occur from year to year in the proportion of cases due to different strains of C. diphtheriae l and it may be that a more invasive type is now assuming dominance. 1 J. Path, and Bad., 1941, 52, 283. Respiratory Diseases. From the table of notifications it is evident that there has been some increase in pneumonia, but not to the extent usual in years when influenza occurs in epidemic form. In fact the latter disease, which caused such devastation in 1918, was not highly prevalent in 1940 and 1941. There was a great increase in deaths from respiratory causes, however, in 1940 as compared with 1939, which gave rise to a suspicion that the stress of air raids and shelter life might be causing the spread of respiratory infection. Close examination of the figures reveals that the increase was due mainly to bronchitis in elderly people, that it occurred chiefly in the first quarter of the year, before air raids began, and that it coincided with exceptionally bitter weather. A rather heavy mortality both from pneumonia and bronchitis in the first and second quarters of 1941 (not comparable in magnitude with that of the first quarter of 1940) may have been partly due to the influence of war-time conditions. Alimentary Infections* One of the most disturbing features of war-time has been the upward tendency of enteric fever and dysentery, as shown in the table. The decline of these diseases had been one of the brightest passages in the long history of the public health movement. They were already on the up-grade in 1940, and the increase in 1941 was great. It was not due to air-raid damage of water or sewage installations ; although damage of this kind was common, associated epidemics did not occur. Fortunately the increase is little reflected in mortality, since it was due, in the case of enteric fever, to the milder paratyphoid form, and to a large extent to the type of dysentery caused by B. dysenteriae (Sonne) which gave rise to a previous epidemic in the winter of 1937-38. There is no clear explanation of these occurrences, but several of the paratyphoid fever outbreaks were due to the consumption of pastries containing synthetic whipped cream. As paratyphoid is rarely spread by water, a definitely authenticated small outbreak so caused is of considerable interest. 1 Outbreaks of a mild form of diarrhoea affecting both adults and children were also common, but up to early 1942 bacteriologists had failed to trace the causative organism and inclined to the view that it might be some hitherto unrecognized virus. Trichiniasis (trichinosis)* Until recently this disease was regarded as extremely rare in Great Britain, and such routine post mortem examinations for evidence of past infection as have been made confirmed this impression. An account of eight small outbreaks, however, occurring since 1922 in South Wales has recently been given by Nancy Howell. 2 Further, during the winter of 1940-41 epidemics involving approximately the following numbers of cascr occurred in England, viz., Wolverhampton 130, Hertfordshire 5, Birmingham 78, Cumberland 50-100. Investigation indicated that occasional cases may have been occurring in Wolverhampton for a number of years, perhaps as the result of the custom of eating raw sausage meat, to which the 1941 unprecedented epidemic was attributed. Efforts to trace the pigs from which the infested flesh responsible for any of these outbreaks was derived were unsuccessful, and extensive examination of pig carcases confirmed the view that the disease is rare in home-bred swine. This makes it unlikely that infection is carried on by garbage-feeding of pigs the mode of transmission from animal to animal now accepted as common in the U.S.A. and suggests that the rat may be 1 Emetg. Pub. Hlth. Lab. Strv. t Mon. Bull., Feb., 1942, i. Pub. Hlth. t 1941, 55, 5- SOCIAL WELFARE, MEASURES FOR PROMOTING 23 still regarded as the important vector for pig-infection in the United Kingdom. Typhus Fever. The Spanish civil war aroused anxiety as to the introduction of typhus into western Europe by troops from Morocco, where the disease was prevalent at that time, but it was not till later that reports indicated its presence in considerable volume in Spain. Since the opening of the campaign in eastern Europe in the spring of 1941 well-authenticated accounts have been obtained of the spread of typhus westward from that area, and cases have certainly occurred in Germany. In view oi the danger of its introduction into Britain by persons returning from an infected area the ministry of health issued a memorandum to public health officers l advising them as to the precautions which ought to be taken. These include the organization of diagnostic and preventive teams, the provision of hospital accommodation and arrangements for the reduction of louse infestation in the community. The Harvard field hospital unit of the American Red Cross placed a mobile team at the disposal of the ministry and local authorities. Pediculosis. In connexion with the problem just mentioned it has become apparent from observation of evacuated children that louse infestation is commoner than was thought, and the inquiries of Kenneth Mellanby a have expressed its extent in precise terms. For instance, he found that 50 per cent of town girls at ages from two to twelve years had lice or nits in their hair. While typhus is generally thought to be carried only by the body-louse, which is much less common, it is thought possible that the head-louse may also act as a vector. The measures proposed for the eradication of lice may conveniently be mentioned in connexion with the cognate problem of scabies. Scabies. For a few years before the war school medical records showed that itch was definitely increasing. It has become a serious problem during the war both among soldiers and civilians. Mellanby extended his investiga- tions to this disease and found a sharp rise in war-time, reaching as many as 40 cases per thousand admitted to one hospital for other reasons during the first six months of 1941. 8 The minister of health therefore made the Scabies Order, 1941, which applies also to pediculosis. It enables the medical officer of health to require cleansing and treatment of verminous persons and articles, to inspect contacts and to seek out cases of infestation. In particular, health departments are now able to follow up to their homes school-children found to be verminous and to treat and disinfest the family and premises. Tuberculosis. The registrar-general's quarterly returns disclose the rise in mortality from tuberculosis anticipated in the 1941 year book. Its decline, which had been continu- ous for many years and was seriously interrupted only by the war of 1914-18, was arrested in 1039 and reversed in 1940 and the first half of 1941. It seems likely that the his- tory of the previous war will be repeated in this respect. The war-time increase is probably not due to the discharge of sanatorium patients at the outbreak of war, since such action was not taken in 1914-15 when a similar rise occurred, nor to shortage of food. It may be a consequence of overwork, long hours and irregular living, perhaps accentuated by the fatigue experienced by workers during the air raids of 1940-41. There is evidence of a general 1 Memo. 25*IMed. t October, 1941. 1 Mid. Off.. 1941, 65, 39- Ibid., 66, 141. kind that a similar increase has occurred in other belligerent countries, and the state of affairs is said to be serious in the occupied low countries where it is probably intensified by privation. Gaatro-duodenal Disorder. Numerous articles in the medical press indicate that one of the greatest causes of unfitness among men recruited into the fighting services is disorder of the upper part of the alimentary canal, taking the form of gastric or duodenal ulcer in a large proportion of cases. Whether there is a real increase in such disorders as compared with former times, or merely more complete ascertainment, it is hard to say. It is at least certain that a large proportion of beds in military and emergency service hospitals have been occupied by such cases, and many men have had to be discharged for this reason. It seems unlikely that war-time dietary is responsible. Just as recruitment during the South African war revealed the presence of much physical defect in adolescence and led to the inception of the school medical service, the recent records of recruiting boards and the fighting services may point to new measures of preventive medicine directed at such chronic disability in the young adults of the present day. (R, M. F. P.) SOCIAL WELFARE, MEASURES FOR PROMOT- ING. This war, like that of 1914-18, has turned a searchlight on the social life of the people of Great Britain. Like the last war too, it has shaken people and institutions out of all kinds of ruts. But its impact on individuals and families has been far closer. The billeting of industrial workers, teachers, staffs of evacuated business firms, service men and women and evacuated children and mothers has affected innumer- able homes in reception and neutral areas. To be bombed out from office, shop or home has been the lot of many in towns. Change of occupation, of place and ways of living: has been the experience of literally millions of men and women in industry and the forces. To meet the social needs arising out of these war condi- tions new services of many kinds have come into being. Some have been developments of social experiments of pre- war days, some have been created to meet urgent and often unforeseen needs, others have come through the seizing of opportunities for new forms of social progress by far-sighted people. Services* Welfare. Welfare services for serving men and women have been greatly extended in this war. Educa- tional facilities have also been developed on new lines. The creation of an army welfare department at the war office, supported by county welfare officers and committees, was a new departure. So, too, was the formation of the council for voluntary war work to co-ordinate the work of the societies which had served the need of the forces in the war of 1914-18. Under their auspices over 5,000 canteens were set up, in addition to those run by local churches and independent bodies. These and the 3,800 institutes pro- vided were only some of the ways in which the societies concerned were endeavouring to meet the social, educational, recreational and spiritual needs of the men and women in the new citizen armies. Factory Welfare. In 1940 the factory department of the home office was transferred to the ministry of labour. This was followed by the setting up by the ministry of a factory welfare advisory board, charged with the promotion of the welfare of industrial workers. Eleven regional welfare officers were appointed assisted now by close on 100 local welfare officers concerned with matters affecting the welfare of workers outside the factory, including transport. 24 SOCIAL WELFARE, MEASURES FOR PROMOTING A CAM KEN loK MINERS AT THE PITHKAU, GLASSHOUGHTON COLLIERY billeting and recreational facilities. A central consultative committee together with specialized sub-committees was formed, composed of voluntary organizations with experi- ence of various types of welfare service. Housing of Workers. Very soon the need for the housing of workers became urgent ; billeting was not sufficient, nor possible in isolated districts where the new shadow factories were sometimes established. The ministry of supply accordingly built hostels mainly for women and girl workers at the royal ordnance factories. These were specially constructed buildings with accommodation for 100-1,600 workers who sleep in houses surrounding a dining and recreation building with community centre facilities. The ministry built and equipped the hostels, which were staffed and managed respectively by the Y.W.C.A. and Y.M.C.A. jointly, the Workers' Travel Association, the Holiday Fellowship and the Co-operative Holidays Associa- tion. In addition the ministry of supply provided houses on small housing estates for married key workers with families. These were managed by trained housing man- agers, usually directly from the ministry, though in one or two cases local housing associations acted as the ministry's agents. The National Service Hostels Corporation provided hostels on behalf of the ministry of aircraft production and other factories. Agricultural workers' hostels, including those for members of the Land Army, were arranged for by the ministry of agriculture through local war agricultural committees and voluntary bodies. Works canteens were another vital need partly to help the family rations, partly for the benefit of workers where distances made it impossible to obtain the mid-day meal at home, or billet or hostel. Miners' canteens were a specially welcome institution. Factory Concerts. In factories during the lunch hour, concerts became a frequent occurrence, varying from the performance of a local concert party to the visit of artists belonging to the Entertainments National Services Associa- tion (E.N.S.A.), or a recital of chamber music by the staff of the Council for the Encouragement of Music and the Arts (C.E.M.A.). The former organization staffed by pro- fessional actors and actresses and other artists gave 52,000 concerts in factories apart from 156,000 performances to the forces through tho help of the Navy, Army and Air Force Institutes (N.A, A.F.I.). The Council for the Encouragement of Music and the Arts was the result of a venture by the Pilgrim Trust partnered later by the board of education (which after- wards assumed full responsibility) to provide opportunities in town and country, among the forces and in the work- shops, for good music, the production of opera and plays, and the study of art. Some 8,000 concerts of all kinds, including concerts in shelters and rest centres, were given in 1940 and 1941, 1,500,000 people saw plays given by the fifteen companies touring the country. Just under 1,000,000 people saw the " Art for the People " exhibition, consisting of original paintings, reproductions and auto- graphic prints. A further popular exhibition was that of " Living in Cities." War-time Nurseries. With the entry of married women in increasing numbers into industry, the need for day nurseries for children under five became acute in certain areas. At the outbreak of war about 150 nursery schools and day nurseries, together with various residential nurseries in London and large towns, were evacuated to large country houses. Vacancies arising through children moving on to junior schools or for other reasons were filled by children who, through war conditions, had become social casualties. As conditions became graver owing to intensive bombing more such nurseries were opened. By Feb. i, 1942, the number of residential nurseries had increased from the original 150 to 362, and the number of nursery places from 4,600 to 10,750. Of the 212 new nurseries, 114 had been provided by voluntary societies, substantially assisted by funds derived from the United States and the British commonwealth, and the remainder by local authorities, individual voluntary efforts and those carried on by the British Red Cross Society. A new scheme for whole-time and part-time nurseries sponsored by the ministry of health and board of education and operated by local welfare authorities with the co- operation of local education authorities and voluntary organizations came into being. It was designed particu- larly to meet the needs of industrial workers. By the beginning of 1942 276 nurseries were open and over 600 in preparation. There was also a large extension of nursery classes in elementary schools. An official scheme of minders or daily guardians was promoted by the ministry of labour to help where nurseries were not possible for lack of suitable premises or other causes. The ministry also gave grants in aid for the pro- vision of play centres by the local education authorities for older school children whose parents were working long hours in industry and other forms of national service. Social Centres* At the beginning of the war and again after the heavy bombing of the autumn of 1941, many mothers went to the reception areas with their young children. Housed very often in billets, they were at a loss how to spend their days without being an intolerable burden on their hostesses and themselves. So there grew up social centres or clubs in halls lent by churches and voluntary bodies or in empty houses. At the close of 1941 there were 443 social centres with occupational facilities and 287 without. While many of the mothers had returned to their homes in evacuation areas at the end of 1941, an official estimate of the mothers remaining in the country amounted to 145,000 apart from 100,000 scheduled as homeless or with special disabilities. British Restaurants. A particularly popular feature was the provision in some centres of communal meals such as were organized by the South Wales social service clubs for their London visitors. These were being transformed into " British Restaurants," where satisfying meals were avail- WAR FINANCE able for all kinds of people. In towns of varying size these new forms of communal living were finding a place, intended for the public outside the scope of the big factory or communal canteens. British restaurants numbered 1,300 by early 1942. Some were run entirely by local authori- ties, though often with the help of voluntary workers. Others were run by voluntary bodies such as clubs or settlements. Post-raid Welfare. The early rest centre leaders in London made experiments which influenced the develop- ment of the fine chain of rest centres available under the London county council. The appointment of a special commissioner for the homeless in the same area set on foot a remarkable scheme of re-housing and welfare in which local authorities, government officials, voluntary agencies and a team of experienced social workers co- operated. Originally started as an aid to civil defence the Women's Voluntary Services by the end of 1941 had enrolled over 1,000,000 volunteers, who played an indispensable part in post-blitz work as auxiliaries of the local authorities. Another W.V.S. development was a vast clothing scheme in close association with government departments and local authorities for helping both homeless and evacuated families in need. In this, the timely aid of the U.S.A. and the Dominions and gifts from all parts of the world were of great value. Citizens 9 Advice Bureaux. While war conditions were creating these various measures of social welfare, one service had been foreseen and prepared for since the crisis of 1938. The National Council of Social Service had then called into being a standing conference of voluntary 'organizations in time of war, whose first task had been the prepara- tion of an information service to meet the numberless inquiries for which the anxious citizen would need an answer. The day war broke out a large number of citizens' advice bureaux were opened, those in London under the direction of the charity organization society, elsewhere through the help of local councils of social service, other voluntary agencies and public-spirited individuals Their main object was to provide for all citizens a centre otadvice and information on all kinds of personal and domestic problems. Behind the bureaux grew up an intelligence service known as Citizens' Advice Notes which, from the information department of the National Council of Social Service, provided accurate information on legislative enact- ments and war-time services of every description. These Citizens' Advice Notes (later issued in book form with supple- ments as required) reached a circulation of 6,000. In addition to the workers of the 1,000 or more citizens' advice bureaux in towns over 600 people agreed to act as citizens' advisers in villages and isolated districts. Old People's Welfare. Amongst the many problems dealt with by the citizens' advice bureaux few were less easy of solution than those of old people. Many of them were made homeless by enemy action, many were left stranded in London and the big cities when their sons and daughters were transferred to other districts for munition work or evacuated to the country. The administration of supplementary pensions to old age pensioners undertaken by the assistance board revealed the many needs of lonely Old people. At the suggestion of the board the National Council of Social Service set up a committee to co-ordinate and extend work for the welfare of the aged. Old people's welfare committees were set up in the provinces and a register of homes for the aged was compiled. Youth Work, With the introduction of the service of youth scheme in 1939 the board of education took a new share in the development of youth activities through the setting up erf a national youth committee and the encourage- ment of local youth committees set up by local authorities. All the 146 higher education authorities in the country by 1941 had formed youth committees, many of them repre- sentative of voluntary bodies as well as educational interests. Policy showed two tendencies (i) to strengthen the work of existing youth organizations by grants in aid and (2) by the setting up of new youth centres where activities for the 14-20 age group were specially fos* tercd. While the majority of schemes were set on foot through local youth committees, the board could assist individual clubs and usually did so on the recommendations of one of the established national youth organizations. Clubs of all kinds were accordingly developing rural clubs, mixed clubs, old scholars' chibs, us we Itas^the* usual boys' and girls' clubs and the uniformed organizations. Mixed activities were more and more common both in these and in the new war workers' clubs for young adults, financed by the ministry of labour and organized by such bodies as the Y.W.C.A. and the National Association of Girls' Clubs, and other voluntary organizations. At the younger end, war conditions and the desire to serve found expression in youth service squads which undertook numberless services from salvage collection to messenger work for the civil defence services. Later, existing pre- service training schemes were expanded through cadet corps. This was followed by a number of training schemes for girls which were co-ordinated through a national voluntary committee. Other Welfare Services. It would be impossible to enumerate even briefly, in the scope of this article, the war- time developments in provision for the economic welfare of serving men and women and their dependants, for war orphans, for the aftercare and training of the disabled and for the appointment of almoners in all emergency hospitals for after-care work. Other tendencies of social welfare in 1941 included the growth of regional ization typified by the appointments of regional welfare officers of the ministry of health, the earlier ones of regional officers of the National Council of Social Service and regional administrators of the W.V.S. There was, too, the increasing employment of social workers by government departments and local authorities. There was a growth of co-operation between the state and national and local voluntary bodies. This last showed a diverse pattern. It might include a ministry of supply hostel built and equipped by the ministry and staffed and run by voluntary bodies, a communal feeding scheme organ- ized by voluntary institutions on behalf of the ministry of food, and the whole range of services covered by countless women's organizations and the W.V.S. (M. L. H.) WAR FINANCE. The most outstanding fact in war finance in the third year of war was the large increase in national expenditures. This may be illustrated from the budgets of the countries concerned, or by expressing the expenditures as percentages of the net national income ; when national expenditure is expressed as a percentage of the national income, it must be borne in mind that part of the expenditure is from capital or dissaving. In Great Britain, the percentage of expenditure (national and local) to national income in 1941-42 was about 67 per cent as compared with 59 per cent in 1940-41, and 31 per cent in i93 8 -39- Of this total expenditure, the share of war or WAR FINANCE Kfystonf] LONDON'S WAR WEAPONS WEEK IN MAY 1941. A MESSERSCHMITT lOQ ON SHOW IN TRAFALGAR SQUARE defence was 51 per cent, 42 per cent, and 9 per cent, respec- tively. In Germany, the figures were much higher ; it is not possible to calculate the percentages because expenditure figures were not available, but a statement was issued during the year for propaganda purposes to the effect that public expenditure, including municipal expenditure, in 1938 was 42 per cent, in 1939 53 per cent, and in 1940 70 per cent. In 1941, on this basis, the expenditure would be well over the 1940 figure. Expenditure, it may be noted, was increasing in the Reich at a much faster rate than revenue. In the United States, government expenditure (national, state and local) was 29 per cent in 1938-39, 28 per cent in 1940-41, and 46 per cent in 1941-42, and of this 2 per cent, 7 per cent, and 27 per cent, respectively was defence or war expenditure. These figures are striking because they show that as war proceeds, the national economy of the nations concerned is turned over, at the expense of the people, more and more, to the production of munitions. In peace time, governments are attempting to increase the standard of living of all. In war, the contrary is aimed at. The restriction of consumption is not the unfortunate by-product of war finance ; it is and must be the deliberate object of war finance. The expansion of the resources devoted to war is the same thing as the compression to the minimum of those resources retained for the consumption of the people. This transfer of resources was being achieved mainly by four methods : (i) taxation, (2) borrowing or the utilization of savings, (3) a combination of taxation and borrowing, and (4) inflation. Rationing may also be said to be a method by which consumption is reduced, making available for the use of the government what would other- wise have been devoted to consumption. In Germany, for example, with the exception of potatoes, amusements and books, practically everything was rationed. The result was that with full employment and considerable over-time and no means of spending, savings were swept into government coffers. The limitation of consumption is also possible by directly limiting the amount of goods produced for civilian use. By inflation is meant an increase in the general price level as a result of an increase in the public's spending power, due to increased government expenditures, while goods available for purchase arc not correspondingly increased in amount. While taxation and loans take money out of the pockets of the people before they can spend it, inflation permits them to spend as much as before but ensures they get much less for their money. Prices under inflation, whether money is printed by the government or borrowed from the central bank or other banks, and paid out by the government for wages or materials, rise as a result of the competition between the government and the general public for the purchase of goods and services required for the conduct of the war. The government with its unlimited resources ultimately outbids the consumer. Jt is obvious how unsatisfactory inflation is compared with taxation, by which every pound which the government spends is withdrawn from the public's income according to an agreed plan and not surreptitiously by the inflation of prices. The belligerent countries have not all followed the same policy as regards the combination of taxation and borrow- ing. In Great Britain, the policy has been to tax to the utmost and to meet the remainder from loans. Some of this taxation was deliberately levied to stop consumption of goods in order to set free income for government purposes. Up to the beginning of 1942 this had not been successful ; the consumption of both alcohol and tobacco much exceeded the estimates in the 1941-42 budget, and the rate of release of sugar had also been increased ; the yield of the purchase tax was well above the budgeted figure. The large extent of borrowings in the third year of the war is distinctive among all the belligerents in some more than in others. In the last war, Germany financed her effort mainly by loans, in this war she is following the example of Great Britain and the United States by using taxation and borrowing. Secretary of State Reinhardt has announced that the national debt of the Reich had in- creased to Km. 90,000 millions by March 1941. This was an increase of, roughly, Rm. 40,000 millions during the financial year 1940-41. In other words, the Reich had at its disposal in 1940-41 the sum of Rm. 76,000 millions from revenue, administrative fees, war contributions of local authorities, payment for occupation costs, and borrowed capital, which at the rate of Rm. 12 to the pound, works out at 6,300 millions. At the beginning of 1942 the Reich was spending much more than this figure. In Great Britain, an intensive drive for large and small savings was producing astounding results. In the second year of the war, ending November 1941, 633,262, 731 were in the form of national small savings, as compared with .484,043,000 in the first year. Savings, both large and small, form the loan money which must increase with the intensive effort of the national savings campaign. During the financial year 1940-41, the national debt increased from 8,411,221,301 to 10,872,241,552 an increase of 2,461,020,651. The real object of war economics is to mobilize men and materials with the utmost efficiency and with the least possible c'elay to win the war. Finance in war time ought not to be the controlling factor. The main functions of money in war economics are positive and negative ; the positive function is to see that the burden is distributed fairly, the negative function is that nothing should be decided on purely financial grounds. This does not mean that the control of expenditure should be neglected, and that audit is superfluous. Far from it. Control and audit sec that the money is spent efficiently and in the way in- tended. When we say that finance in war time should not be the controlling factor, all we mean is that it should not be allowed to impede the solution of the physical problem. And it must be admitted that from this viewpoint the British war time finance system is far from perfect. For financial considerations to hold up the right solution of WAR FINANCE military problems is bad, but for financial considerations to dictate a wrong solution is much worse. Finance cannot contribute much to the actual winning of the war, but it can see that the burden is spread with equity and that the war is won with the minimum of disturbance to society. The choice between paying for the war from taxation or from loans, or from both, is sometimes misunderstood. How often we hear it said that by borrowing instead of taxing, we are placing the burden on posterity ! This, however, is not true. It is clear that by borrowing rather than by taxing, the government relieves those actually living and working today from paying taxes only to the extent that it takes from them by way of loans money which belongs to them, thus equally depriving them of current spending power. All that borrowing, in preference to taxation, does is to place on future generations a technical problem, that of taking money from the pocket of the tax- payer and putting it in the pocket of the debt-holder. Both are members of the same society and both are often the same person. This does not impose a real burden on the community as a whole, just as the process of raising a loan does not relieve a community of its real burden, which is a current effort and cannot be put, save with three excep- tions, on the past or the future. If a community borrows from abroad, it obtains additional resources in the form of aeroplanes and other munitions of war. It has to make a future deduction from its resources when it pays interest or repays capital. When drawing on investments, it also increases its present resources but at the expense of having less in the future. In the present war, Great Britain was drawing on her investments in the United States to pay for goods imported. In August 1939, her gold and dollar resources were $4,483 millions, but on September i, 194** this had fallen to $697 millions. At home, the most im- portant factor in domestic dis-investment was the non- replacement of trading stocks which were falling to rock- bottom levels. The third exception, namely, the failure to keep in good repair capital in the form of machinery, etc., leaves for the future the making good of the deficiencies arising from not allowing for depreciation. The rule, however, in spite of these exceptions, is that the real burden of the war is on bhose who are compelled to do without the goods and services which they would have enjoyed had not these been made over to the production of munitions. Sacrifice, in short, is borne by those living at the present time, who must provide the men and materials needed to prosecute the war n 1942. Great Britain. The fourth war budget was presented to the House of Commons on April 7, 1941* an d was the nearest approach since the war to what a war budget should t>e. It added several million to the number of income tax payers, raised the rate of direct taxation on the highest ncomes to 195. 6d. in the , and above everything else limed at the prevention of inflation. The real menace in ,var finance, as already shown, is the gap between revenue including the borrowing of real savings and other assets) it home, and expenditure at home. The chancellor of the ixchequer indicated that it would be misleading to take iccount of expenditure abroad, especially since the Lend- >ase Act had been passed in the United States. In the irst 18 months of war, government expenditure was ^4,650,000,000, while taxation was 2,000,000,000, overseas esources 1,000,000,000, and the balance of 1,650,000,000 vas made up of substantial current receipts of certain extra- THE NATIONAL SAVINGS CAMPAIGN t ONE TOWN'S INDICATOR SHOWING ITS TOTAL, IN THE FORM OF A SHIPMAST FLYING NELSON'S FAMOUS SIGNAL budgetary funds, mainly the unemployment fund and funds of the government insurance schemes. In addition, the government had the advantage of large sums available for investment since the normal sums to make good deprecia- tion, renewals of buildings and plant and repairs, were greater than was required. Most important of all were the new savings obtained by the national savings movement and other genuine savings seeking investment in government funds. The chancellor framed a budget estimate for expenditure of only 4,207,000,000 for 1941-42, although he indicated that the total war effort represented expendi- ture far beyond 5,000,000,000. He summarized the financial policy of the government as control of the torrent of excess purchasing power fed by the springs of war time government expenditure. Revenue he estimated at over 1,786,000,000. The corresponding figures for 1940-41 wereexpenditurc 3, 884,000,000 and revenue 1,409,000,000. The figures of expenditure in these two years are not strictly comparable, as those for 1941-42 exclude the values of supplies received under the Lend-Lease Act and pay- ments made to the United States, for existing orders at the time of the presentation of the budget. It is on the revenue side that the budget is of special interest. The whole of the additional money required by taxation was to come from income tax, 150,000,000 in 1941-42 and 250,000,000 in a full year. The chancellor assumed an increase of between 200 and 300 millions in personal savings, and this, added to the new taxation, would bridge the prospective gap of 500 millions. This gap was obtained as follows : purely domestic expenditure (which is vital for the handling of the problem of inflation) he gave as 3,700,000,000. Revenue on the 1940-41 basis was estimated at 1,636,000,000 and the other offsets a* 1,522,000,000, a total of 3,i5 8 * 000 > 000 or a S a P of 28 WAR FINANCE 542,000,000. Income tax was increased by is. 6d. t making the standard rate 105. in the (6s. bd. on the first 165 of taxable income). Personal allowances were reduced for married persons from 170 to 140, and for others from 100 to 80. The exemption limit was reduced from 120 to 110. The earned income allowance was reduced from one-sixth (maximum allowance 250) to one-tenth (maximum 150). The extra tax which anyone paid because of the reduction of personal allowances and of earned income was to be credited to him after the war in the Post Office Savings Bank, with a maximum allowance of 65. The changes in the income tax increased con- siderably the burden of direct taxation on middle incomes. The amount of income tax, for example, reached the effective rate of 10 per cent on an earned income as low as 140 for a single person, 250 for a married couple and 400 for a married couple with two children. It reached 20 per cent at just over 250, at 400 and at 600 for these cases. There would be more than 3,000,000 income tax payers in 1942 who have never paid income tax before. The most important single proposal in the budget was the stabilization by subsidy, where necessary, of the pricet of all the essential goods entering into the cost of living and also the cost of essential services such as coal, gas and electricity. It was a bold step to assume a liability of which the amount could not be estimated with even approximate accuracy. It was, however, essential if wages were to be stabilized. The aim was to prevent any further rise of the cost of living index number above the then range 25 to 30 per cent above the pre-war level. During 1941-42, food subsidies amounted to about 120 millions. The main groups of subsidized foods were cereals, including flour, bread, oatmeal, milk, tea, eggs and potatoes. The price of food was affected by the subsidies of about 5 millions on the transport of coal and by whatever emerged from the government's agreement with the railway companies. The contribution which the exchequer was making in keeping the cost of living stabilized ensured greater benefits, especi- ally to the poorest section of the workers, than could be obtained by any other measure. It was another proof of the determination of the government to wage battle against inflation. The budget returns of the nine months of the financial year, i.e., to December 31, 1941, show that in spite of the desire of the chancellor of the exchequer to put the national economy into a strait-jacket he was not altogether success- ful. Expenditure on consumption goods was still far too general and widespread. The consumption of alcohol and tobacco was high and it is known that the yield of the purchase tax had much exceeded expectation. The budgeted increase for the whole year under customs and excise was 48 millions, but for the nine months an increase of 144 millions had already been realized. During the last six months of 1941 a study of the growth of bank deposits and the circulation of notes shows that money . incomes increased sharply. More taxation to curb spending would appear to be called for either in the form of a higher income tax, an excess income tax over, say, the pre-war year or the pre-rearmament year (1937-38) or heavier consumption taxation on goods and services. A greater campaign to obtain savings for war purposes is also necessary. So far inflation had been moderate, not more than 20 per cent after two years of war. 1 Consumption goods were scarce as there was not enough man-power to make more, and there 1 Cf. "Types of War Inflation*' A. C. Pigon, Economic Journal, December 1941. were not enough ships to bring them to the country. As Mr. Keynes stated in December, the total amount which could be bought in the shops and spent on rent, light, fuel, travelling, entertainment and all else was a fixed amount, about 12 millions a day at the prices then ruling. Personal wages and other incomes before income tax was paid were of the order of 16 millions a day. The excess of 4 millions a day must not be spent. Personal savings were 2 millions a day and it covered only half the gap. The remainder of the balance, 2 millions a day, still remained to be drawn off by income tax, and by more intensive saving. Even if this were not done the public could buy no more goods than they were buying then. The future burden of the national debt is a question that has arisen from time to time since the outbreak of war. 1 On March 31, 1941, the total deadweight debt was 11,513,000,000, the highest in the history of the country. From 1919 until 1938 the total stood at the level of 7,000,000,000, The increase of 2, 467,000 ;ooo during the fiscal year 1940-41 was mainly due to a large increase in treasury bills outstanding (2,212,000,000) and to the issue of loans for the war. On the supposition that prices are kept down during the war and are kept up after the war, and that the average rates of interest do not exceed those of the years 1932-38, the burden will not be great. If the war lasts as long as the last war the net increase in the principal of the national debt is not likely to be more than 10,000 millions. The average rate now being paid is 2 per cent and at this rate the annual cost will be 200 millions a year. This is the gross figure and should be reduced by the amount of tax levied on the interest payments. The net burden is estimated at less than 150 millions. If the post- war price level is that of 1936, then an increase of one-sixth in the rates of taxation, i.e., an income tax of 55. 6d. in the only will be required. An increase of 20 to 25 per cent above the 1936 price level would solve the problem. Canada* The year 1941-42 was an annus mirabilis for Canada. Canada had raised forces greater in number than those raised by the summer of 1916 ; in addition, there had been enormous industrial expansion which made the production of munitions beyond comparison with those of 25 years ago. Effective machinery had been set up for preventing unnecessary expenditure abroad, for restricting the supply of luxuries, for collecting direct taxes from at least one -fifth of the whole population. Prices, wages, and rents were controlled in this year of pronounced progress. Domestic prices were not allowed to exceed the maxima charged between September 15 and October u, 1941. Basic wage rates had been stabilized in relation to the general price level throughout industry, with certain exceptions, by a cost of living bonus subject to periodic revision. These measures put a brake on the possibility of inflation. It may, in the future, be necessary to restrict production and the sale of goods unessential to the war effort unless the government can obtain borrowings in sufficient amount from actual savings. Canadians may, with justification, take pride in what has been accom- plished. The expenditures of the Dominion government, including the assistance given to the United Kingdom, but excluding all provincial and municipal expenditures, would in 1941-42 amount to nearly 50 per cent of the national income. Before the war, it was estimated that government federal, provincial and municipal spent 25 per cent to 30 per cent. 1 Cf. "The Future Debt Burden" -The Economist, August 16 and 23, WAR FINANCE 29 Government expenditure was estimated at more than 2,800,000,000 ; of which about $1,450,000,000 was the stimated direct war expenditure ; $470,000,000 was >rovided for non-war expenditure, and $900,000,000 for the stimated cost of munitions for Great Britain. Tax evenue was expected to yield $1,400,000,000, so that ipproximately 75 per cent of expenditures would be met rom current revenue, leaving the sum of $1,250,000,000 to >e found by borrowings. The federal budget provided for a considerable increase n taxation. Since the outbreak of war, the taxes on ;obacco, malt, carbonic acid (for soft drinks), cosmetics, ugar, motor cars and similar commodities, have been raised, tnd a war exchange tax of 10 per cent placed on imports. The personal income tax has been raised three times, so that t is now quite severe on the intermediate incomes ($2,000 o $10,000). A national defence tax of 5 per cent has been mposed on single people with incomes between $660 and 1,200, and of 7 per cent on incomes over $1,200 ; on narried persons with incomes of $ 1,200 the rate is 5 per cent. The corporate income tax was raised to 18 per cent and an excess profits tax imposed, so that 75 per cent of excess profits over the basic years is taken. The Dominion has tlso invaded the succession duty field with a moderate levy iuperimposed on the existing provincial duties. New taxes lave been placed on amusements, and a duty of 3 cents per jallon on petrol or gasoline, both of which were previously mwincial fields. The burden of the personal income tax is onsiderably heavier on the middle classes than hitherto. Agricultural income, however, has been practically un- ouched in the war taxation ; although agricultural incomes lave not much increased the agriculturists are relatively >etter off than before 1939. Considerable re-distribution >f income is taking place, a re-distribution which will have :onsiderable social effects. The bulk of the increase in the national income has gone o re-employed persons and to young persons employed for he first time, whose taxable capacity is not high. Employ- nent has reached a record level. Half of the workers imployed by the Canadian manufacturing industries ,are lirectly engaged in munition work and war contracts xceed $2,500,000,000. In shipyards, for example, 20,000 workers are engaged, as compared with only 1,500 men at he outbreak of war. Aircraft factory floor space has ncreased seven times, and workers from 2,300 to 32,000. Vith full employment approaching, it may be necessary for he government to curtail civilian production. Another actor which has enabled Canada to maintain her civilian :onsumption, apart from unemployed resources, is the upplies from the United States, which has been a deep eservoir. The war, it may be noted, has aggravated the endency for Canada to pile up debit balances with the Jnited States and a credit balance with Great Britain. The shortage of dollar exchange has been met in three ways : i) the import of American goods and services has been educed by taxation, by import duties and embargoes, and >y the ban on free travel in the United States; (2) the imerican component in goods purchased for Great Britain las been supplied to Canada on lend-lease terms, and (3) he United States has also been purchasing from Canada nunitions which the latter is able to produce in large [uantities. A considerable part of the borrowings of Canada are the esult of supplies to Great Britain for the winning of the war. lie United Kingdom has been in need of Canadian dollars s well as American dollars. At first, down to the end of 1940, the British need for dollars was met by sales of British assets in Canada (40 per cent), by Canadian accumu- lation of sterling (i.e., short term loans to the British government) 20 per cent and the remainder (40 per cent) by the shipment of gold. The second phase was the accumula- tion of sterling which marked the year 1941. Canada took payment in sterling which accumulated in London and was invested mainly in treasury bills or other floating debt. At the end of January 1942 a third phase began. Sterling had accumulated to $700 millions (^160,000,000). It was agreed that $295 millions, the proceeds of Canadian securi- ties belonging to residents in the United Kingdom, should be mobilized and used not in the reduction of debt but to pay for further purchases. The $700 millions is to be lent the question of the ultimate repayment and the rate of interest is to be left for decision after the war. Canada is to supply munitions of war, including foodstuffs up to an amount of $1,000 millions free, i.e., Canada makes a gift of $1,000 millions which is expected to last for a year. These are large figures when compared with Canada's total revenue. The most interesting feature of Canada's war effort, to date, is that most of the increase in expenditures has been provided by an increased output, and to a less extent by drafts on capital, and only to a small extent by the reduction of consumption on the part of the public. South Africa. In no part of the British Commonwealth was the financial position more satisfactory than in the Union of South Africa. The Union is, as is well-known, the chief source of gold production in the British Commonwealth. It is true that the passage of the Lend-Lease Act somewhat modified the urgency attached to the demand for gold. Nevertheless, the Union's gold production was still a most important source of purchasing power. It is not possible to say what happens to the gold but the most beneficial use of it is for providing for exchange. It is interesting to note that since the war began there has been an increase of 70 per cent in the holdings of the reserve bank. Like the other Dominions, South Africa had found it necessary to check inflation by means of price control and import restric- tions, but the problem had been less strenuously tackled than in Canada and Australia. Rationing had been introduced for some goods, such as petrol, but the control of wages had been imposed only in a few industries such as the making of footwear, and the building industry. The cost of living had risen by only 9 or 10 per cent in spite of a rise of nearly 40 per cent in import prices. The inflationary danger was that war expenditure was being financed by surplus gold rather than by genuine savings. It is desirable that surplus funds should be mopped up by government loans and utilized for the repatriation of external debt, which has been taking place on a considerable scale over the last two years. General activity prevailed not only in the monetary sphere but in commerce and industry. The engineering workshops of the mines and railways have been turned into arsenals. The Iron and Steel Corporation, known as " Iscor," and other engineering firms, textile, clothing, boot and furniture factories, not to mention the canning industry, have been harnessed to war production and over 600 factories are engaged on the production of war supplies. Overtime was being regularly worked, and earnings showed a considerable increase. Mines have been the mainstay of the Union's economic position and during the year 1941 a new high record of production was reached, namely, 14,386,361 oz. of gold valued at ^120,845,114, WAR FINANCE compared with 14,037,741 oz, of gold valued at 117,917,024 in 1940. Owing to the increase in working costs and severe taxation, the industry showed a decline in actual profits. In the budget for the year ending March 31, 1943, intro- duced in February 1942, the government proposed to spend /i 39, 855,000, of which 95,500,000 would be from current income. Mr. Hofmeyr budgeted for a deficit for 1942-43 of 210,577. 80,000,000 would be spent on defente in 1942-43, as compared with 72,000,000 in 1941-42. 40,000,000 would be provided from revenue and the other half from borrowing. The normal gold mines tax was to be unchanged, but the gold mines special contributions tax was to be raised to 20 per cent, which would yield an additional amount of 1,540,000. The excess profits tax would remain at 135. 4f/. in the , but a new tax would be instituted to be called the trade profits special levy. This would be levied on the difference between (a) the amount of assessed profits on which the excess profits duty was payable by the taxpayer, having regard to the pre-war standard based on profits, and (b) the amount on which such duty would be payable by the tax- payer with a like income but with the minimum pre-war standard. This levy was estimated to produce 4,000,000. The finance minister also announced variations in the normal and supertax on individuals, including a compulsory saving scheme, and a surcharge of 10 per cent on all income tax payments by individuals, which was estimated to yield 1,550,000. As a war-time measure he announced the further institution of a land sales profit tax, which was estimated to produce 450,000. Australia* The talc of war finance in the financial year which ends on June 30, 1942, can be briefly told. During the early part of the year there was some hesitation to admit the full logic of the economic necessities of war. Gradually, however, as time went on, it was realized that surplus purchasing power must be skimmed off and that the economy of the nation must be put into a strait- jacket. This can best be illustrated by referring to the major financial facts of the year. On June 27, 1941, the Loan Council met at Canberra to discuss the Commonwealth government's proposals. It was clear that the Australian war effort would involve an increase in the war expenditure of the Commonwealth from A. 80,000,000 to A. 250,000,000 in the coming financial year. The federal treasurer, Mr. Fadden, told the Council that the Commonwealth govern- ment foresaw a gap of A. 60,000,000, and that it must make very heavy demands on the taxpayer, and that its demands must take precedence over those of the States. He stated that the States were requested to cease levying income tax for the duration of the war, and instead accept a grant from the federal treasury. The difficulty arose because the amounts levied in State income tax are in some cases very high. The taxpayer in Queensland, for example, had to pay to the State treasurer more than twice as much as a taxpayer earning the same income in Victoria. The con- troversy resulted in a decision against the proposal, All the State premiers except the premier of South Australia opposed the proposal. When the budget for 1941-42 was introduced on September 25, 1941, Mr. Curtin, leader of the Opposition, indicated that there was fundamental diver- gence of opinion between Mr. Fadden 's Coalition govern- ment (the United Australian Party and the Country Party) and the Labour Party. The Labour Party objected to the proposed compulsory loan on the grounds that it would dry up the source of war savings certificates. Mr. \ Curtin made a frontal attack on the whole plan to extend direct taxation to the smaller incomes (down to A.i5o) and he denounced as ungenerous the government's treatment of Service men and their dependents. On the resignation of Mr. Fadden's government, Mr. Curtin 's budget was introduced in October ; its real feature was the scaling down of the amount provided by new taxes, and an increase in the amount to be covered by new borrowings. Only A. 2 2, 000,000 was to be found from new taxes against A. 32,000,000 under the Fadden budget ; A. 138,000,000 was to be borrowed in place of A. 12 2,000,000. The Australian fighting man was given a substantial increase in his pay, and especially in the form of an allowance for his dependents. There were increases in old age and service pensions. Instead of bringing in those with incomes under A.2oo, the new budget took more from those whose incomes exceed A. 1,500, at the same time restricting the exemptions and allowances at all levels. The sliding scale so operates that all incomes over A.2,5oo (or A.2,ooo in the case of revenue from property) pay i6s. Sd. in the . The new government implemented certain recommenda- tions made by the Royal Commission on the monetary and banking system of the Commonwealth, " to bring the operation of the trade banks under effective control/ 1 pub- lishing regulations for the control of banking operations under the National Security Act in November 1941. The new government, like its predecessor, set its face against inflation through banking channels. As a result of the policy of the Commonwealth bank, advances were limited to the essential needs of war production. In December 1941, after the extension of the war to the Pacific, more stringent methods were adopted. A special war-time tax on individual incomes was passed by the federal parliament on Dec. 17, and came into force immediately. It tapped a new income field embracing hundreds of thousands of wage-earners. The tax was to be on the actual income less the amount assessed on that income for ordinary federal income tax. It commences at 6d. in the on incomes of 156 per annum, rising by one quarter of a penny in the for every 6 until it reaches is. in the on incomes of 300, when it is stabilized at that rate. A rebate of tax of is. per week for a wife and for each child is allowed. Military pay under 200 per annum is exempt from this tax and dependents' allowances are exempt from both the new tax as well as the federal income tax. A supertax of is. in the was imposed on company profits, making the company tax 4$. instead of 3$. in the . These increases were estimated to bring in in a full year 27 millions. In February 1942, Mr. Curtin announced that the war cabinet had decided to carry out far-reaching measures designed to accelerate the marshalling of the national resources behind the war effort. Like Canada, Australia then decided to adopt the policy of price and wage stabiliza- tion. It was a comprehensive plan to keep prices of all goods, services and wages at the existing levels. Profits were to be pegged at a maximum of 4 per cent ; interest rates .were to be controlled and the sale or investment of capital except under government licence or for obvious war purposes was prohibited. Nothing was said about ration- ing, which would appear to be a necessary complement to the pegging of prices and wages ; in August 1941, for example, the value of retail sales in Melbourne had in- creased by 45 per cent, and in Sydney by 35 per cent, as compared with the value of sales at the beginning of the war, and these rises were much greater than could be WAR FINANCE attributed to any upward movement of prices. The government also decided to require employers to obtain labour through the labour bureaux, and the dismissal of employees in federal industries was prohibited, as was any change of occupation or employer without federal approval. Persons engaged in industry were forbidden to absent themselves from work for reasons other than sickness or recreational leave, and those illegally absent were to be subject to drastic penalties. The government may take power to put any area under military control in an emer- gency, and this includes acute industrial trouble. Specula- tion in commodities such as forward dealing in foodstuffs and other essentials was also prohibited. New Zealand. The second war-time budget of Mr. Nash, the New Zealand finance minister, showed a large increase in war expenditure. The estimated war expenditure was NZ 69,700,000, which is ^NZ 42,500,000 more than was spent in the previous year 1940-41. It was expected that NZ 31,000,000 of this would be spent overseas and would be met from advances made by the British government, the remainder being raised and spent in New Zealand. Although /NZ 31,000,000 was to be financed as a loan by the United Kingdom, New Zealand proposed to pay the advance to the full extent that sterling funds permit. Of the /NZ 40,000,000 to be spent in New Zealand, taxation was to provide NZ 19,346,000, loans ^NZ 13,000,000 and cash balances and transfers from the civil budget ^NZ 7,654,000. In the civil budget revenue was estimated at ^NZ 39,296,000, and expenditure, excluding transfers of war funds, at NZ 37,712,000. On both sides of the civil budget there was a fall of NZ 1,000,000 below the corresponding figures of the previous year. No new taxes were imposed as the government recognized the limit to the possibilities of increased taxation and the necessity of avoiding killing the goose that lays the golden egg. The only new expenditure proposed was for additional social security benefits for families with low incomes, invalids, and war veterans. This expenditure for social security benefits was estimated at ^NZ 14,673,000. Another interesting feature of the budget was .the amendment of the system of taxing the trading banks in the Dominion, so as to make them liable for social and national security and income taxation only on the actual income earned in New Zealand. For more than 40 years New Zealand bankers have pressed for a change in the method of tax assessment, and with a rising rate of taxa- tion and falling earning power, the incidence of banking taxation under this system had become almost crippling. As in Australia, public works programmes were reduced, but provision for essential national development amounted to /NZ 20,615,000 including NZ 12,950,000 from loans. The government social expenditure prior to the war has had much the same effect as war expenditure. The recent rapid rise, however, in the latter has diminished the rate of advance in the former. National income, it may be added, has increased as a result of the war, the main beneficiaries being the wage earning classes. India* During the year India made vast strides in the production of war materials, supplying the Middle East as well as the Far East with as many as 40,000 different kinds of munitions. The effect of the war on Indian finance has been very great but it does not show the entire war effort of the Indian empire. Expenditure on defence in the year 1942-43 will be Rs.i33 crores, 1 three times more than similar 1 Rs. i crore as Rs. 10,000,000 - 750,000. Rs. i lakh *> Rs. 100,000 - 7i5<>o. expenditure before the war. The Indian defence estimates covered only the cost of local defence. The amount of expenditure, for example, that the government of India will spend on defence services 'and supplies that they will recover from the British government under the financial settlement between the two countries will exceed Rs. 400 crores (^300,000,000) in 1942-43. The total budget expenditure is estimated at Rs. 187 crores 7 lakhs. Revenue at existing levels of taxation when the budget was presented on February 28, is estimated at Rs. 140 crores. There is thus a deficit of over Rs. 47 crores. To meet this Rs. 12 crores will be raised by new taxation and Rs. 35 crores by borrowing. In direct taxation it is proposed to (i) make incomes between Rs. 1,000 and Rs. 2,000 liable to taxation, but the liability may be discharged if the person assessed deposits one and a quarter 'times the amount of tax in defence savings, which will be repayable with interest at 2 per cent one year after the war ; (2) increase the present surcharge of income on a graduated scale ; (3) retain the excess profits tax at the existing rate of 66| per cent but the government will contribute up to one-tenth of the tax paid to a reserve for re-equipment of industry after the war, provided the assessed person doubles the amount. The assessee's deposit will be repayable within twelve months after the end of the war and will earn 2 per cent simple interest. In indirect taxation there will be an emergency surcharge of one-fifth on all customs import duties except petrol, the tax on which is increased from 12 to 15 annas a gallon, raw cotton, on which the duty is doubled, and specified imports from Burma which are excluded. There is no change in the duty on salt but the excise duty on kerosene has been raised to the level of the increased import duty. Minor increases have been made in post and telegraph rates. The most interesting point in the budget is perhaps the sterling debt repatriation which has taken place, consequent on the piling up of sterling balances in London. The total sterling debt has been reduced by ^101,600,000 and the annual interest payments in sterling by more than ^4,000,000. In 1942-43 further repatriation of overseas debt will take place. Another feature of considerable interest to the Provinces is the fact that Rs. 8 crores 37 lakhs will be their share of the income tax, and as Sir Jeremy Raisman, the finance member, said : " This is considerably more than the total sum which, at the time of the Niemeyer Award, the Provinces were expected to receive at the end of the ten-year devolution period or than ever appeared to be possible before the outbreak of war." Germany. In 1941-42 revenue was estimated at Rrn. 32,000 millions against Rm. 27,200 millions in 1940-41, an increase of nearly 18 per cent. To this should be added the war contributions of the communes plus the charges levied on the occupied countries which should bring in some Rm. 13,000 millions a total revenue of Rm. 45,000 millions. If borrowing continued at the same rate, the total available for public expenditure should be of the order of Rm. 90,000 millions. In short, revenue, borrowing and foreign tribute will exceed four-fifths of the gross national income of Greater Germany, a very high proportion. It was, however, necessary to " steer " purchasing power by taxation and by systematic saving more than ever before. The pressure of excess purchasing power in 1941-42 made an increase in taxation necessary despite the fact that the revenue from taxes was already buoyant. The surcharge on cigarettes, cigars and tobacco was raised from 20 per cent to 50 per cent of the retail price while the war duty on brandy was WAR FINANCE increased by Rm. i per litre and that on champagne by Rm. 1.50. There was no increase on the price of beer. Reinhardt, state secretary of the Reich finance ministry and the chief apologist of Nazi financial policy, told the press that the aim was to reduce consumption and to prevent inflation. The war surcharges on income tax levied after the outbreak of war had produced additional revenue but had differentiated against certain sections of the population. Income tax, the corporation tax and the turnover tax accounts for 70 per cent of the revenue. The yield from the Profit Stop tax proved to be less than i per cent of the total. The taxation of wages (which is important in any war tax structure) carries with it in the Reich (i) a minimum subsistence of 54 marks a month; (2) a free exemption of 52 marks a month of a married woman's wage (to encourage married women to go out to work) ; (3) an exemption for special overtime pay, i.e., not all overtime but only that beyond the maximum working hours fixed by the Trustees of Labour wherever such excess is authorized by the Trustees ; and (4) an exemption of all savings including bonuses saved under the " Iron Savings Scheme." The wage earner may deduct a fixed amount up to Rm. 6 a week before paying the wage tax and this is credited to a special savings account, to be withdrawn twelve months after the war. The eight regular deductions (wages tax, war surcharge, civic tax, defence tax on men not conscripted, the three contributions for social insurance and the contributions to the Labour Front and Winter Help) were simplified by the amalgamation of the wages tax and the surcharge and by the suspension of the defence tax, " Iron Savings " were introduced because not until this year was the danger of inflation considered likely owing to the gap between the large amounts of unspent or unspcndable money on the one hand and the decreasing supply of consumption goods on the other. Next as to borrowing. From April 1933 to March 1941 Reich revenue was Rm. 119,200 millions and public debt Rm. 90,000. In 1941-42 there was a large increase in borrowing which indicates a further fall in civilian produc- tion and consumption in a national economy now in a strait-jacket. The limit of taxation is said to have been reached since the present level restrains higher production and efficiency. The problem of war finance in the Reich to-day is to place at the disposal of the Reich the additional purchasing power. The occupied countries pay to the Reich over a fifth of their total national incomes, of which no part or at least a very small part is returned in the form of goods and services. Confiscation of state and private property in various forms amounts to a large sum. The effect of removing great stocks of goods against " promises to pay " is seen in the balance sheets of the central banks. Thus from April 1941 Germany financed her debts in the Netherlands through the Bank of the Netherlands and as a result this German indebt- edness was in March 1942 the chief asset of the bank. As a corollary to this inflation of the bank's assets the note issue had greatly risen. German financial necessities were also being financed with the liquid balances left with the Dutch private banks owing to the decrease in stocks and the impossibility of investing these balances in industrial con- cerns. Exchange rates were manipulated by the over- valuation of the mark, which means that imports from the occupied countries were cheaper and exports to them earned a greater purchasing power over their products. Germany was buying from the occupied countries more than they would be normally prepared to sell and the price paid was from 15 to 40 per cent below that which would rule in a free market. Between one sixth and one quarter of the present war effort by Germany is probably the result of her exploitation of the countries overrun by her. (G. F. S.) 1942 BRITANNICA BOOK OF THE YEAR A Record of the March of Events of 1941 1942 BBITANNICA BOOK OF THE YEAR Prepared Under the Editorial Direction of Walter Yust, Editor of ; Encyclopaedia Britannica ^PUBLISHED BY ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA, INC., CHICAGO ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA OF CANADA, LTD., TORONTO THE ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA COMPANY, LTD., LONDON COPYRIGHT IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA, I BY ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA, INC COPYRIGHT IN ALL COUNTRIES SUBSCRIBING TO THE BERNE CONVENTION BY THE ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA COMPANY, LTD The editor of the BRITANNICA BOOK OF THE YEAR acknowledges with gratitude the privilege of using 200 pictures from Life. Acknowledgments of the copyright owner- ship of all illustrations may be found on the following three pages. THE EDITOR TABLE OF CONTENTS List of Illustrations and Acknowledgment of Copyright Introduction ....... Editors and Contributors ..... Calendar, 1942 ....... Calendar of Events, 1941 Britannica Book of the Year .... Index ........ v Vlll ix xx i i? 737 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS (Acknowledgment of Copyright is to be found in the Parentheses. Asterisks denote Illustrations from Life) Air Forces Bristol Beaufighter (William Vandivert)* . 32 Combat planes, U.S. (International) Frontispiece Douglas B- 19 (Wide World)* 32 "Flying wing" (Acme) 32 Goggles for night-fighting pilots (William Van- divert)* 32 Lockheed Hudson bombers (Rudy Arnold)* . 32 Parachute troops, U.S. (Acme)* 34 Air raid shelter, British (Wide World) .... 36 Air raid shelter, Dutch East Indies (News of the Day Newsreel irom International) .... 240 Allis-Chalmcrs strike, Milwaukee, \\i. (Cour- tesy Milwaukee Journal)* 629 Aluminum collection for U.S. defense (Milwau- kee Journal, photo by Edward Farber)* . . 41 Anti-gaa chamber, Chinese (Carl Mydans)* . . 156 Aosta, Duke of (Hamilton Wright)* 6 Archaeology "City above the clouds" near Cuzco, Peru (Acme) 60 Palace terrace at Perscpolis, Iran (Courtesy, Oriental Institute, University of Chicago, and Aerial Survey Expedition, from Erich Schmidt, Flights over Ancient Cities of Iran [University of Chicago Press})* 62 "Throne of Solomon, ' fortress in Iran (Cour- tesy, Oriental Institute, University of Chi- cago, and Aerial Survey Expedition, from Erich Schmidt, Flights over Ancient Cities of Iran [University of Chicago Press))* . . 61 Architecture Apartment building roof terrace, New York, N.Y. (Richard Garrison) 65 Curtiss- Wright propeller plant, Caldwell, NJ. (Courtesy, Architectural Forum, photo by Samuel H. Gottscho) 65 Industrial Tape Corp. plant, New Brunswick, NJ. (Courtesy, Industrial Tape Corp., New Brunswick, N,J; photo by Robert Yarnall Richie) 65 Klelnhans Music hall, Buffalo, N.Y. (Robert M. Damora) 65 National airport, Washington, D.C. (Inter- national) ... 65 School for Crippled Children. Denver, Colo, (Hedrich-Blessing Studio) 65 Arias, Arnulfo (I.N.P. sound photo)* 11 Arias, Arnulfo, and President Rafael Calderon Guardia of Costa Rica (International) , . 154 Army, U.S. Anti-aircraft crew (Acme) 73 First troops leaving for Newfoundland (Ron Partridge from Black Star)* 477 Insignia (Courtesy, U.S. War Department) . 220 Louisiana war games (Ralph Morse)* .... 73 Ski trooper (Horace Bristol)* 73 Troops in Alaska (Acme) 37 Troops training (Acme) 17 Atom smasher, Notre Dame University (Acme) . 525 Auchinleck, Sir Claude J. (International)* . . . 7 Aurora borealis (Press Association, Inc.) .... 80 Australians welcoming U.S. warship crews (Press Association, Inc.)* K2 Aviation, Civil Automatic direction finder (diagram) (Cour- tesy, United Air Lines) J H5 Boeing clipper (J. R. Eyerman)* 84 Pan- American clipper (Carl Mydans)* ... 86 "Strato-chamber" (Courtesy, Boeing Aircraft Co. [21) 84 Balloon house (International [21) 336 Barrage balloon, U.S. (John Phillips)* . . 223 Batista, Fulgeneio, addressing Cuban soldiers (Acme) 207 Belgian children at soup kitchen (R. Muns and courtesy, Commission for Relief in Belgium)* 96 Bermuda land cleared for U.S. air bases (George Strock)* 98 Bethlehem Steel strike, Bethlehem, Pa. (Wide World)* 629 Bethlehem Steel strike, Lackawanna, N.Y. (Wide World)* 677 Bicycle taxis and chaises, occupied France (In- ternational)* 290 Blackout luminaires, British and U.S. (Courtesy, General Electric Co.) 253 Blackout paint (F. W. Goro)* 505 Bock, Fedor von (Dever from Black Star)* . . 11 Bombay, bomb-proof apartments in (Wallace Klrkland)* 344 Boston Evening Transcript suspending publica- tion (W. Eugene Smith from Black Star)* . 481 Boy Scouts in aluminum drive (Milwaukee Jour- nal, photo by Elmer J. Staab)* Ill Buckingham palace, investiture in (Press Asso- ciation, Inc.)* 316 Budenny, Simeon (Press Association, Inc.)* . . 11 Camp Blanding, Fla. (Thomas D. McAvoy)*. 127 Canners' convention, Chicago (Bernard Hoffman)* 145 Carol II (John Phillips)* 3 Cartoons "Afraid to Look it in the Face" 679 "Another Controversy" 103 "Delay in the Balloon Ascension" 644 "Hands Across the Balkans" 128 "Inferior Decoration" 306 "It's an 111 Wind That Blows Nobody Some Good" 538 "La Guardia at Work" 484 "Look Who Says Hess is Crazy" 327 "New Boarder" 542 "Optimistic Strong Man" 306 "Our American Songbirds" 460 "Rising as One Man" 679 "Shrinking Violet of Italy" 369 "Steady Does It!" 681 "Storm" 134 "Strange Race Horse" 678 "Undiplomatic Exit" 105 "Unexpected Guest" 671 "War Aim" 330 "We Understand All That" 124 Charts Agricultural exports and imports, U.S., value in terms of farm income 25 Air-raid casualties compared with traffic cas- ualties (Press Association, Inc.) 19 Aluminum production, world 40 Chickens and eggs, farm prices of, in U.S., World Wars I and II 23 Coal production, U.S 183 Coal production, world 184 Commodity prices, U.S. and world 22 Cotton and cotton-seed, farm prices of, in U.S., World Warn I and II 23 Cotton production, U.S 201 Crop production per capita and total exports, U.S 25 Dairy products, farm prices of, in U.S., World Wars I and II 23 Diamond production, world 232 Exports and imports, U.S 359 Farm and city wages and farm prices, U.S. . 26 Farm land, value of, in Iowa, Mississippi and Pennsylvania 26 Farm products, prices of, received by U.S. farmers 22 Farm products, prices of, in U.S., World Wars I and II 23 Farm taxes and prices of farm products, U.S. . 27 Fruits, farm prices of, in U.S., World Wars I and II 25 Gold production, world 309 Grains, farm prices of, in U.S., World Wars I and II 25 Industrial production, U.S 674 Lynchings, U.S 407 Meat animals, farm prices of, in U.S., World Wars I and II 23 Newspaper advertising linage, U.S 20 Petroleum production, world 516 Prices, retail, United Kingdom and U.S. . . 539 Prices, wholesale, United Kingdom and U.S. . 539 Silver production, world 605 Steel production, U.S 365 Stocks, U.S., 1928-41 624 Stocks, U.S. sales and price range in 1941 . 624 Telephones per 100 population, cities .... 648 Telephones per 100 population, countries . . 647 Cheese for Britain under lend-lease act (George Strock)* 155 Chiang Kai-shek and Mme. Chiang (Carl Mydans)* . 162 vl Chinese coolies working on airfields (Hans Koes- ter-Pix)* ............... 170 Chrysler tank arsenal, Detroit, Mich. (Bernard Hoffman)* .............. 407 Chungking air-raid shelter disaster (Mel Jacoby)* 171 Churchill, Winston S., and Prcs. Roosevelt at "Atlantic Charter" conference (Wide World)* ..... ........... 675 Churchill, Winston S., inspecting house of com- mons after bombing (Press Association, Inc.)* ................ 403 Civilian Defense Insignia of workers (Courtesy, U.S. Office of Civilian Defense) ........... 179 Volunteer workers at New York air defense centre (Charles E, Steinhcimcr)* ..... 180 "What to Do in an Air Raid" (Courtesy, U.S. Officeof Civilian Defense (6J) ...... 178 Coal, synthetic (Ron Partridge from Black Star)* 159 Coast guardsmen boarding German tanker, Box- ton (International)* .......... 185 Colette, Paul (International) ........ 79 Condenser, hydrogen-cooled (Courtesy, General Electric Co.) ............. 254 Conscientious objectors at Camp Patapsco, Md. (Acme) ................ 502 Cooke, Sarah Palfrey (Max Peter Haas)* . . .651 Copper mine, Chuquicamata, Chile (Milwaukee Journal, photo by Robert Dumke)* . . . 628 Corvette, naval (William Vandivert)* .... 632 Cotton crop of French Equatorial Africa (George Rodger)* ............... 202 Crime-fighting car (diagram) (Acme) ..... 204 Cuban officials and families in exile at Miami, Fla. (Acme) .............. 206 Cunningham, Sir Alan G. (Wide World)* ... 14 Cvetkovitch, Dragishu (Press Association, Inc.)* 3 ^ Denison dam, Tex. (Acme) ....... 211 Grand Coulee dam, Wash. (International) , 211 Grand Coulee power plant (Acme) ..... 211 Roosevelt dam, Ariz. (Acme) ....... 211 Shasta dam, Calif. (Acme) ........ 211 Dance Amaya, Carmen (Gjon Mili)* . . . . . . .213 "Boogie-woogie boost" (New York Daily News photo)* ................ 213 "Defense Swing" (Acme) ......... 213 Labyrinth, ballet (Courtesy, S. Hurok) . . . 213 Volusia, Kros (Hart Preston)* ....... 213 Darden, Colgate W., Jr. (Acme) ....... 699 Da r Ian, Jean (Press Association, Inc.)* .... 6 Davidson, Jo (Andreas Feininger from Black Star)* ................ 589 Defense agencies, U.S. (diagram) (Courtesy, New York Times) .............. 219 Defense courses in Buffalo, N.Y., high school (Eisenstaedt-Pix)* ........... 245 Defense housing, Grand Prairie, Tex. (William Langley)* ............... 337 Defense poster, U.S. (Courtesy, Cy Hungerford, Hungerford & Sherman, Pittsburgh, Pa.) . 20 Delaware river aqueduct (Acme) ....... 58 Dentz, Henri (European)* ......... 7 De Valera, Eamon (William Vandivert)* ... 6 DiMaggio. Joe (Acme)* ........... 93 Dinosaur (Acme) ............. 506 Disasters Airliner crash near St. Thomas, Out., Can. (Acme) ................ 235 Carlsbad, N. M., flood (Acme) ...... 285 Express train wreck, Dunkirk, O. (Acme) . 235 Marshfield, Mass., fire (Press Association, Inc.)* ................ 235 vSalina, Kan., flood (Acme) ........ 235 Dress British manikins in Buenos Aires (Hart Pres- ton)* ................. 69 Dinner dress (Courtesy, Harper's Bataar; photo by Hoyningen-Huene) ...... 273 Peplum of bullet padding (Courtesy, Harper's Bazaar; photo by Martin Munkacsi) . . . 273 Platform-sole shoes (Courtesy, Harper's Bataar and Fritz Henle) ............ 273 Snood (Courtesy, Harper's Bataar) ..... 273 Eire's tribute to heroes of 1916 rebellion (Hans Wild ................. 251 Electoral college, U.S., meeting of (Eliot Eliso- fon)* .............. ... 252 Electric power transformer (Courtesy, General Electric Co.) ............. 254 Epidemic in army camp (Myron H. Davis)* . . 260 Erosion control test (Bernard Hoffman)* . . . 613 Etching "Bowling Green, New York" (Rosenberg) (Peter A. Juicy & Son) ......... 262 "Deep Water" (Wengenroth) (Peter A. Juley &Son) ................ 262 "Distant Haze" (Cheffetz) (Peter A. Juley & Son) ................. 262 "Standard Fisheries" (Winkler) (Courtesy, John W. Winkler) ........... 262 Evacuation camp for New York city school chil- dren (Acme) ............. 244 Explosive rivets (Courtesy, E. I. du Pont de Nemours & Co.) . ........... 426 Finnish women repairing bombed cities (Text and Bilder)* ....... .' ...... 279 "Fire card" dropped by R.A.F. over Germany (F. W. Goro)* ............. 156 Fin* Brooklyn pier (British Combine)* ..... 281 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Jersey City waterfront (Acme) 281 Marshrield, Mass. (Press Association, Inc.)* . 281 Whiting, Ind., refinery (United Air Lines photo, from Acme) 281 Fish, Hamilton, and Norman Thomas (Inter* national)* 609 Fishery restocking by plane (Arme) 282 Flame thrower, U.S. (Acme) 156 Frankensteen, Richard T., addressing strikers (Acme)* 195 Free French troops at Duala, Africa (George Rodger)* 294 French manikins (International)* 291 Gas mask, plastic (Acme) 156 Gaulle, Charles dc (British official photo- graph)*. 299 Generator for Grand Coulee dam (Courtesy, Westinghouse Electric & Manufacturing Co.) 254 Georgia university students staging protest (Kenneth Rogers)* 246 Glass, measuring texture of (Courtesy, Mellon Institute of Industrial Research) 307 Glaucoma instrument (Dmitri KesMol)* .... 268 Goebbcls, Josef (Acme)* IS Golf tournament, U.S. national amateur, Omaha, Neb. (Myron Davis)* 310 Greek peasant troops (\V. Bosshard from Black Star)* 318 Greenland, occupation by U.S. troops (New York Daily News photo)* 319 Gustavus V (Acme) 320 LJaile Selassie (British official photograph)* . . 263 Halifax, Viscount (Margaret Bourke- White)* 2 Harley, J. E, (International) 616 Henderson, Leon (Carl Mydaus)* 10 Hess, Rudolf, beside Hitler in Reichstag (Inter- national)* 304 Heydrich, Reinhard (European)* 11 Honolulu hospital burning after Jap raid (Exclu- sive photo by Alan Campbell, Acme staff photographer) 324 Hopkins, Harry L. (Carl Mydansj* 2 Hoppe, Willie, making eight-cushion shot (Gjon Milt)* 99 Hull, Cordell (W. Eugene Smith from Black Star)* 6 Iceland, U.S. forces in (Official U.S. Navy pho- tograph)* . 339 Ickes, Harold L. (Thomas D. McAvoy)* ... 7 Imperial valley, Calif., irrigation (H. Bristol)* . 366 Incendiary bomb burning under water (F. W. Goro)* 156 Interior Decoration Federal bedroom furniture (Courtesy, Ameri- can Furniture Mart; photo by Grignon) . . 356 Porch remodelled into lounge room (Courtesy, G. McStay Jackson, Inc.; photograph by Chicago Architectural Photographing Co.) . 356 Sectional sofa (Courtesy, American Furniture Mart; photo by Grignon) 356 Sitting room in 18th century English style (Courtesy, G. McStay Jackson, Inc.; pho- tograph by Chicago Architectural Photo- graphing Co.) 356 International Harvester strike, Chicago, 111. (Press Association, Inc,)* 629 International Harvester strike, Richmond, Ind. (Fred Albert)* 383 Iron ore shipments, Great Lakes (Minneapolis Star Journal, photo by Roy Swan; courtesy, Northwest Airlines. Inc.)* 364 Italian crew imprisoned in Puerto Rico (Acme) . 552 Italian prisoners in Great Britain (International)* 314 Japanese-Manchoukuoan gunboats patrolling Amur river (Acme) 411 Jewish religious service in ruins of London syna- gogue (Acme) 374 Lf immel. Husband E. (Press Association, Inc.)* 15 * Kodak Ektra camera (Courtesy, Eastman Kodak Co.) 524 land, Emory S. (Newsphotos)* 10 *- Lindbergh, Charles A. (Acme) 399 Litvinov, Maxim M. (International)* 15 Locomotive for mountain hauling (Acme) . , , 561 Lofoten islands, raid by British (Movietone News)* 489 Louis-Conn fight (International)* 110 Lupescu, Magda, and Carol II (Acme) 146 Mac Arthur, Douglas (International)* .... 15 Madera canal sinhon: Central val Maps Madera canal siphon; Central Valley proj- ect, Calif. (Acme) Africa, 1941 720 Axis advance lato U.S.S.R., 1941, monthly stages 723 Balkan campaign, 1941 718 Battle of the Atlantic 224 British empire shipping (British Crown copy- right; reproduced by permission of the con- troller of H.B.M. Stationery Office)* . . . 359 Caribbean defenses, U.S 225 Changes in territorial control by conquest, 1939-1941 717 Chinese- Japanese war 1 72 Ecuador- Peru disputed territory 243 Europe, end of 1941 716 Far east, 1941 729 Ferry plane routes to Great Britain and Africa 226 Hawaiian islands 325 Philippine islands 520 Proposed U.S.-Alaska highways 574 Rejections of U.S. selectees, by states . . . 594 Yugoslavia, partition of 735 Marines, U.S., m landing boats (Dmitri Kessel)* 73 Marines, U.S., making sea landing (Dmitri Kes- sel)* 680 Marquand, John P. (Walter B. Lane)* .... 49 Marriage preparation class (Courtesy, Hugh Morton, photographer) 416 Marshall, George C. (U.S. Army Signal Corps) * 7 Mathematical formula, visual demonstration of (Professors Sears and Edgerton; courtesy, Massachusetts Institute of Technology)* , 420 Matsuoka, Yosuke (Press Association, Inc.)* . 3 Medicine Field hospital unit, Libya (British official photograph)* 638 Restoration of speech by surgery (Courtesy, Dorothy Diamond)* 639 Salt water treatment for burns(Topical Press)* 424 Vitamins test for soldiers (Acme) 423 Meteorology Lightning-measuring machine (Acme) . . .427 "Tele-register" panel (Courtesy, American Air- lines, Inc.) 427 Weather balloon in Little America (Official photograph, U.S. Antarctic Service, from International) 427 Weather station, Washington National airport (Courtesy, American Airlines, Inc.) . . . 427 Mexican army irregular (Francis Miller)* ... 431 Motion Pictures Cititen Kane (Courtesy, RKO Pictures, Inc.) . 445 Great Lie, The (Courtesy, Warner Bros. Pic- tures, Inc.) 445 How Green Wan My Valley (Courtesy, 20th Century-Fox) 445 Keep 'Em Flying (Courtesy, Universal Pic- tures) 445 Sergeant York (Copyright, Vitagraph, Inc., and courtesy, Warner Bros. Pictures, Inc.) . . 445 Sieg 1m Westen (Ufa Films, Inc.)* 446 Suspicion (Courtesy, RKO Pictures, Inc.) . . 445 Motor Cars Concealed running boards (Courtesy, Hudson Motor Car Co.) 450 Ford (Courtesy, Ford Motor Co.) 450 Full-length streamlined fenders (Courtesy, Buick Motor Division, General Motors Corp.) 450 Horizontal grillwork (Courtesy, Chrysler Sales Division, Chrysler Corp,) 450 Mercury (Courtesy, Ford Motor Co.) . . . 450 Packard (Courtesy, Packard Motor Car Co.) 450 Parking brake (Courtesy, Buick Motor Divi- sion, General Motors Corp.) 450 Plymouth (Courtesy, J, Stirling Getchcll, Inc.) 450 Multlflash photograph (Professor H. E. Edger- ton, Massachusetts Institute ofl echnology) * 523 Munitions Bombs and their properties (Courtesy, The Military Engineer) 454 Machining of 16-in. gun (Dmitri KeHsel)* . . 408 M3 medium U.S. tanks (Morse-Pix)* .... 455 105-mm. U.S. howitzer (Acme) 454 Music Berkshire Symphonic festival rehearsal (Eric Schaal)* 459 Lewisohn stadium, New York, concert (Pix, Inc.) 459 Maazel, Lorin (International) 459 National music camp, Interlochen, Mich. (Pix, Inc.) 459 My Own Brucie, champion dog (New York Daily News photo)* 603 National airport, Washington, D.C., control tower (Courtesy, American Airlines, Inc.) 35 National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C. (Thomas D, McAvoy)* 76 Navies "Arizona" at Pearl Harbor (Acme) 469 "Ark Royal" sinking (International) .... 469 "Bismarck" survivors (International)* . . . 469 "Idaho" (Bob Landry)* 470 Insignia, U.S. (Courtesy, U.S. Navy Depart- ment, headquarters of Ninth Naval Dis- trict, Great Lakes, 111.) 221 "North Carolina," commissioning of (George Strode)* 222 "North Carolina" testing guns (International)* 469 Range-finding (Dmitri Kessel 121)* 470 Nelson, Donald M. (Thomas D. McAvoy)* . . 10 New Zealand training camp (Acme) 485 New Zealand Women's War Service auxiliary (Acme) 485 Nimitz, Chester W. (Press Association, Inc.)* . 15 Nomura, Kichisaburo, and Saburo Kurusu (Acme) 371 Norfolk naval air station, inspection by Latin- American naval officers (Thomas D. Mc- Avoy)* 329 North American Aviation strike, Inglewood, Calif. (Hugh A. Arnott-/-o5 Angeles Times)* 629 Nursery school. British (Courtesy, Bishop H. Marshall)* 166 /Nddities room, Roosevelt library, Hyde Park, \J N.Y. (Wide World) 577 "Old Faithful," Yellowstone national park (Hen- ryk photo) 467 Pin-measuring instrument (F, W. Goro)* 526 Painting "Ah, God Herrings, Buoys, the Glittering Sea" (Albright) (Courtesy, The Art Institute of Chicago) 504 "Central Park at Night" (Grosz) (Courtesy, The Art Institute of Chicago) 504 "Henry P. Mcllhenny, Esq." (Watkins) (Courtesy, Frank K. M. Rchn Gallery) . . 504 "Miracle of Dunkerque Arrival at Dover" (Bone) (British official photograph, Minis- try of Information; crown copyright re- served) 504 "Night Class" (Weber) (Courtesy, Associated American Artists) 504 "Tiger" (Hirshficld) (Courtesy, The Mueeum of Modern Art, New York; photograph by Soichi Sunami) 504 Palm oil, African (George Rodger)* 693 Paris breadline (Pari-Pix)* 292 Ptain, Henri Philippe (International)* .... 2 Petroleum pipe line, Portland-Montreal (Walter B. Lane)* 518 Petroleum transport by rail to eastern seaboard (Bernard Hoffman)* 517 Photosynthesis, artificial (Hansel Mieth)* ... 109 Pigtails fad (Courtesy, Harper's Bazaar; Louise Dahl-Wolfe photograph) 273 Pine bark drying in Great Smoky mountains (Walter Sanders from Black Star)* . , . . 238 Polish civilians on way to execution (Anonymous)* 530 Polish soup kitchen (European)* 565 Preaidente Vargas diamond (Acme) 232 Prison, Green Haven, N.Y. (Acme) 543 Propaganda in motion pictures, investigation by U.S. senate (Thomas D, McAvoy)* .... 545 Psychological test for infants (Myron Davis)* . 548 Radio x Control room, WABC transmitter (Cour- tesy, Columbia Broadcasting System) . . . 556 Pres. Roosevelt broadcasting after Jap attack (International) 555 Transmitter, WABC (Courtesy, Columbia Broadcasting System) 557 R.A.F. bombers over Dutch fields (British offi- cial photograph)* 474 Railroad tracks, London, repaired after bomb- ing (Harris & Ewing)* 560 Rainbow bridge, Niagara Falls (Acme) .... 116 Rashid AH (International)* 6 Red Cross distribution of milk in France (Acme) 435 Refugees in Lisbon (Pictorial Publishing Co.)* . 533 Rio Hato, Panama, air base (Thomas D. Mc- Avoy)* 508 Roads and Highways Blue Ridge parkway, N.C. (Courtesy, Public Roads Administration) 573 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Four-lane highway, Calif. (Courtesy, Public Roads Administration) 573 Inter-American highway, Co*ta Rica (Acme) 573 Inter- American highway, Nicaragua (Acme) . 573 Link in proposed U.S.-Alaska highway (Acme) 573 Roosevelt, F. D.. and Winston Churchill aboard "Prince of Wales" (Press Association, Inc.)* 175 Roosevelt, F. D., asking U.S. Congress for decla- ration of war (Acme) 193 Roosevelt library, Hyde Park, N.Y. (Acme) . . 397 Rotterdam docks bombed by British (Wide World) 571 Rowing crew, Reed college. Portland, Ore. (Otto Hagel)* 579 Rumanian widows receiving medals (Acme) . . 581 Rundstedt, Karl von (Dever from Black Star)*. 11 Russian women harvesting crops (Margaret Bourke-White)* 24 Qalmon derby, Puget Sound (Courtesy, Art ^ French, staff photographer for Seattle Post- Intelligencer)* 54 Salvation Army at U.S.O. rally (Walter B. Lane)* 585 Sault Ste. Marie bridge (Acme) 117 Selective service lottery (Acme) 593 Sheepherder (Hansel Mieth)* 596 Shipping British freighter launching (International)* . 598 Merchant ships in New York harbour (New York Doily News photo)* 601 Pascagoula, 'Miss,, shipyards (George Strock)* 597 Simovitch, Dushan (International)* 3 Smith, Billy (Acme) 640 Spanish children in breadline (Metcalf from Black Star)* 619 Stalin, Joseph V. (Margaret Bourke-White)* . . 7 Stambaugh, Lynn U. (Wide World) 47 Steinhardt, Laurence A. (Margaret Bourke- White)* 42 Stevenson, Coke (Acme) 652 Submarine attack (diagrams) (Tobias Moss (41)* 631 Suez canal air patrol (Charles E. Brown)* ... 635 Switzerland's clearing house for war prisoners' mail (International) 641 |-ank lighter, U.S. (Dmitri Kessel)* 415 Television on full - sized motion picture screen (F. W. Goro)* 649 Theatre Lady in the Dark (Karger-Pix)* 655 Wookey. The (Karger-Pix)* 654 Timoshenko, Somyon (Sovfoto)* 10 Tin mine, British Malaya (Carl Mydans)* . . 657 Tojo, Hideki (International)* 14 Tokle, Torger (Walter B. Lane)* 606 Transformers, electric (Courtesy, Westinghouse Electric & Manufacturing Co.) 254 vii Trinidad base of U.S. army (David E. Scher- man)* 709 Turkish troops reviewed by British general (Press Association, Inc.)* 665 United Service organizations rally (Walter B. Lane)* 673 Uruguayan students in anti-axis demonstration (British Combine Photos Ltd.) 691 Vargas, Getulio, and Jo Davidson (Jean Man- zon)* 114 Vichy residents receiving tobacco rations (Wide World)* 698 ll/allace, Henry A. (Thomas D. McAvoy)* . . 10 " Warmerdam, Cornelius (Acme) 660 War Production board, organization of (diagram) 219 Wavell, Sir Archibald (International) 14 Westminster cathedral, London (Wide World)* 567 Wcygand, Maxime (Margaret Bourke-Whitr)* . 14 Wheeler, Burton K. (Karger-Pix)* 3 Whirlaway winning Brlmont Stakes (Morse- Pix)* 333 Willkie, Wendell L. (Press Association, liu .)* . 2 Willkie, Wendell L., at lend-lease hearing (Inter- national) 676 Willkie, Wendell L., at Toronto (Morse-Pix)*. . 141 Winant, John G. (Wide World)* 2 Windsor, duke and duchess of (International) . 88 World War II British advancing in Libya (News of the Day Newsreel from International) 721 British evacuating Greece (European)* . . . 718 British occupying Palmyra. Syria (Interna- tional) 722 German advance in Greece (European)* . .719 German reserves moving up in U.S.S.R. (Drver from Black Star)* 728 Indian troops in Iran (Acme) 363 Power plant near Cologne bombed by British (British official photograph)* 305 Russian counterofiensive (International) . 725 Russian guerrillas (Press Association, Inc.)* 727 Russian prisoners (Devcr from Black Star)* 669 Russian sniper (Dever from Black Star)* . . 726 Tracer shells and searchlights over Greek city (British official photograph)* 317 U.S. battleship "Arizona" after Pearl Harbor attack (Acme) 731 U.S. machine-gunners during Pearl Harbor attack (News of the Day Newsreel from In- ternational) 730 WyandQtte cave, Ind. (Acme) 301 Zhukov, Georgi K., soviet general (Inter- national)* 14 INTRODUCTION THE fast Britannica Book of the Year appeared Jive years ago when war seemed only a threat. Today the Book of the Tear is presented to a world torn by men's hates and ingenuity's weapons of death. A record of the year of our Lord 1941 shows only a few small areas of the earth's surface where there is no war. Many of the contributions which make up this volume have come from these fateful places and from the very men and women who are engaged in the vast battle toward peace. Again, as for previous volumes, many manuscripts, by plane and by ship, have won through to Chicago in spite of enemy vigilance and not one manuscript has been lost! From Pearl Harbor, shortly after the Japanese surprise, a contribution arrived with a letter saying, ". . . .1 wrote a little too much and cut it with a pencil. Please excuse this but inasmuch as I lost all my personal possessions, my typewriter, and my ship in the . . . . attack, you will understand. It may interest you to know that one of the files rescued was a water-soaked letter from you and my rough notes for the article. . . ." Here in this volume is the evidence of the folly of any man's assumption of superiority. Men can live peacefully only when they are well-tempered and humble. Those are fated for ultimate disaster who in their desperation dare to be dictators. The swollen arrogance of the Hitlers and the Mussolinis deflate, in the end, like any other balloon. Here in this volume is the evidence of final defeat for all such enemies of decency, understanding and kindness. Although the world storms, books get published. One's gratitude must go to five hundred, busy men and women who have found time to prepare these articles and to the members of Britannica' s staff, who, working under pressure and the obvious emotional difficulties of the day, have kept earnestly and tirelessly at work to Mr. John V. Dodge, assistant to the Editor; to Mrs. M. H. MacKay, who directed the organization of copy for the printer; to Mrs. Harriet Milburn, head proof-reader, and her colleagues; to Mrs. Ruth L. Breed, secretary to the Editor, who directed the preparation of the thousands of letters and telegrams and cablegrams necessary to bring the contributions from all corners of the available world. Most of all, one's gratitude must go to the publishers of Encyclopaedia Britannica, who by careful planning and wise direction have made possible the production of this annual volume. The Editor EDITORS AND CONTRIBUTORS WALTER YUST, EDITOR OF ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA AND OF THE BRITANNICA BOOK OF THE YEAR LIBRARIAN CONSULTANTS ANNE FRASER LEIDENDEKER, Department Librarian, Science and Industry Department, Public Library, Los Angeles, Calif. CHARLES F. MCCOMBS, Superintendent, Main Reading Room, New Tork Public Library. WINIFRED VER NOOY, Reference Librarian, University of Chicago. (Initials and names of contributors to the Britannica Book of the Tear with the principal articles written by them. The arrangement is alphabetical by initials.) A.B.BU. ALFRED BENJAMIN BUTTS, Ph.D., LL.B. Chancellor and Professor of Law, University of Mississippi, Oxford, Mississippi Miss. A.B.HO. A. B. HOLTON, B.S. Superintendent of Cleveland Technical Service Department of the Sherwin-Williams Co. Paint* and Varnishes A.B.Mo. ALBERT BURTON MOORE, M.S., M.A., Ph.D. Professor of History and Dean of the Graduate School, University Alabama (in part) of Alabama, University, Ala. Author of History of Alabama; etc. A.C.Ch. ARTHUR C. CHRISTIE, M.D., M.S. Professor of Clinical Radiology, Georgetown University Medical School, Wash- X-Ray ington, D. C. A.C.I. A. C. IVY, M.D. Nathan Smith Davis Professor in Physiology and Professor of Pharmacology, Northwestern Univer- Physiology sity Medical School, Chicago. A.Da. ALLISON DANZIG, A.B. Member of Sports Staff, New York Times. Author of The Racquet Game; etc. Football (in part) A.D.An. ARTHUR D. ANDERSON, A.B. Editor, Boot and Shoe Recorder, Boston. Author of Shoe and Leather lexicon. Shoe Industry A.E.GI. AUGUSTUS E. E. GIEGENGACK. Public Printer of the United States. Printing Office, U. S. Government A.Ep. ABRAHAM EPSTEIN, B.S. Executive Secretary, American Association for Social Security. Author of Insecurity A Social Security (in part) Challenge to America; etc. Editor, Social Security. A.Fn. ALLAN FERGUSON, M.A., D.So. Assistant Professor of Physics, Queen Mary College, London; Past President of the Science and World Order, Physical Society; Joint General Secretary of the British Association for the Advancement of Science. British Association Conference on A.G.Bn. ANSCO G. BRUINIER, Jr. Technical Advertising Manager, Dyestuffs Division, Organic Chemicals Department, Dyestuffs E. I. du Pont de Nemours and Company, Inc., Wilmington, Del. A.Q.R. ALEXANDER G. RUTHVEN, Ph.D., So.D., LL.D. President, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich. Michigan, University of A.H.F. ABNER H. FERGUSON, LL.B. Administrator, Federal Housing Administration, Washington, D. C. Federal Housing Administration A.M. Ho. ALBERT HABIB HOURANI, B.A. (OX ON.). Lecturer in Political Science, the American University of Beirut, Syria, Arabia (in part) 1937-39. Iraq (in part) AJ.Hp. ANGUS JOHN HARROP, M.A., Lltt.D. (N.Z.), Ph.D. (Cam.). Representative in England of the University of New New Zoaland, Zealand. Editor of The New Zealand News (London). Dominion of A.J.LI. ALFRED J. LIEBMANN, Ph.D., Chom.E. Technical Director, Schenley Distillers Corporation.- Liquors, Alcoholic AJ.Lo. ALFRED J. LOTKA. Assistant Statistician, Metropolitan Life Insurance Company. Birth Statistics, etc. A.K.B. A. K. BRYCESON. "Hotspur" of The Daily Telegraph and Morning Post (London). Horaa Racing (in part) A.UR.L. ALAIN LEROY LOCKE, A.B., Ph.D. Professor of Philosophy, Howard University, Washington, D. C. Author of Race Contacts and Interracial Relations; The New Negro; The flegro in America; The Negro and His Music; Ntgro Art: Past Negroes (American) and Present. A.M.Bv. ALEXANDER M. BAYKOV, Dr. Ju. (Prague). Research Fellow, Russian Economic Research Service, Prague, 1926-30; Moscow (in part) Lecturer Russian Economics, Czech University, Prague, 1935-39- A.M.R. SIR ALEXANDER MACDONALD ROUSE Kt., C.I.E., M.I.C.E., F.C.H. Chief Engineer, Ministry of Home Air Raid Shelters Security. A.Mu. ARTHUR MURRAY. President, National Institute of Social Dancing. Author of How to Become a Good Dancer; Modem Dance (in part) Dancing. A.M.Wn. ARTHUR M. WILSON, M.A., Ph.D. Professor of Biography, Dartmouth College, Hanover, New Hampshire. Author of French Foreign Policy during the Administration of Cardinal FUury. 1726-1743. Dakar France A.N.Wt. A. N. WILLIAMS. President! The Western Union Telegraph Company, N. Y. Telegraphy A.P.U. ABBOTT PAYSON USHER, Ph.D. Professor of Economics, Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass. Corresponding American Academy of Secretary, American Academy of Arts and Sciences. Arts and Sciences A.R.N. ALBERT RAY NEWSOME, Ph.D. Professor and Head of the Department of History. University of North Carolina. North Carolina Chapel Hill. N. C. A.T.B. ALLEN T. BURNS, B.A. Executive VIce-President of Community Chests and Councils, Inc. Community Chest A.T.L. ALFRED T. LARSON, Ph.D. Assistant Professor in History, University of Wyoming, Laramie. Wyoming. Wyoming A.T.M. A. T. MITCHCLSON. Senior Irrigation Engineer, Division of Irrigation. Soil Conservation Service, U. S. Department Irrigation of Agriculture, Berkeley, Calif. A.W.H. ALBERT W. HAWKES. President, Chamber of Commerce of the United States, Washington, D. C. Chambers of Commerce A.WI. ALFONS WILE. Technical Adviser with The Schenley Import Corporation. Author: An Introduction to Wims; etc. Wines EDITORS AND CONTRIBUTORS A.Wt. AUBREY WILLIAMS. Administrator, National Youth Administration, Washington, D. C. National Youth Adminis- tration A.Y.A. ABDULLAH YUSUF ALI, M.A., LL.M. (Cantab.), C.B.E. Formerly Indian Civil Service; later Revenue Minister, Hyderabad State. Author of The Message of Islam; Cultural History of British India\ etc. Islam B.B. BAKER BROWNELL, A.M. Professor of Philosophy at Northwestern University, Evanston, 111. Former Travelling Fellow in Philosophy from Harvard University. Philosophy B.Bh. BOB BUSH. Fishing Editor, Field & Stream. Angling B.B.W. BENJAMIN B. WALLACE, Ph.D. Adviser to U. S. Tariff Commission on international trade policies. Tariffs B.C.B. B.C.S. BEN C. BROSHEER. Associate Editor, American Machinist. BARRY C. SMITH. General Director, The Commonwealth Fun^L Machinery and Machine Tools Commonwealth Fund, The B.Cu. BRYSSON CUNNINGHAM, D.So., B.E., F.R.S.E., M.lnst.C.E. Chartered Civil Engineer. Editor of The Dock and Harbour Authority. Canals and Inland Waterways (in par/), etc. B.De. BYRON DEFENBACH. Author of Idaho: the Place and Its People and other northwest history. Idaho B.Gm. BESSIE GRAHAM. Director, Temple University Library School. Philadelphia, Pa., 1925-1040. Author of The Book- man's Manual and Famous Literary Prizes and Their Winners. Literary Prizes B.H.B. SIR BERNARD HUMPHREY BELL, K.B.E. Sudan Government Service (retired); Legal Secretary to the Sudan Government, igjo-j6. Anglo-Egyptian Sudan (in part), etc. B.H.P. BEN H. PARKER, Sc.D. Associate Professor of Geology, Colorado School of Mines, Golden, Colo. Geology (in part) B.J.S. BERNARD J. SHEIL. Auxiliary bishop, Archdiocese of Chicago. Founder, Catholic Youth Organization. Catholic Youth Organization B.Me. BEATRICE MeCONNELL. Director, Industrial Division, Children's Bureau. U. S. Department of Labor, Washington, Child Labour B.O'C. BASIL O'CONNOR. Treasurer and Chairman, Executive Committee, Georgia Warm Springs Foundation. President, The National Foundation for Infantile Paralysis, Inc. Georgia Warm Springs Foundation Br.S. BRUCE SMITH, B.S., M.A., LL.B. Institute of Public Administration, New York. Crime (in part), eto. B.Ta. BOOTH TARKINGTON, Lltt.D. Honorary Chairman of the National Membership Committee of The Seeing Eye. Pulitzer prize winner tor literature. Seeing Eye B.We. BENJAMIN WERNE, A.B.. LL.B., S.J.D. Editor, Annual Survey Economic Legislation. Lecturer in Law and Market- ing, New York University, New York, N. Y. Law, etc. B.Y. BARNEY YANOFSKY. Editor of Foreign Service and Director of Public Relations, Veterans of Foreign Wars of the United States. Veterans of Foreign Wars B.Z.R. B. Z. RAPPAPORT, M.D. Acting Head of Allergy Clinic. University of Illinois College of Medicine, Chicago. Allergy C.A.L. CARL A. LOHMANN. Secretary, Yale University, New Haven, Conn. Yale University C.A.Sr. CHARLES A. SEGNER. Editor, Investor America. Vice-President, American Federation of Investors, Inc. Taxation (in Part) C.A.T. C. A. THAYER. Director, American Spice Trade Association. Spices C.B.C. CHRISTOPHER B. COLEMAN, Ph.D. Director of Indiana State Historical Bureau and of the State Library, Indian- apolis, Ind. Indiana C.B.H. CHARLES B. HENDERSON, LL.B., LL.M. Chairman of the Board, Reconstruction Finance Corporation, Washing- ton, D. C. Reconstruction Finance Corporation C.B.S. CARL B. SWISH ER, Ph.D. Thomas P. Stran Professor of Political Science, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md. Author of Roger B. Tancy; Stephen J. Field, Craftsman of the Law. * Baltimore Maryland C.BH. CARLYLE BURROWS. Assistant Art Critic of The New York Herald Tribune. Sculpture C.D.Hu. CHARLES DE WITT HURD, Ph.D. Professor of Chemistry, Northwestern University, Evanston, 111. Chemistry C.D.Sp. CHARLES D. SPENCER, A.B. News editor, The. National Underwriter and business manager of The Accident & Health Review. Insurance, Accident and Health (in part) C.E.A. CHARLES E. ALLRED, M.S.A., Ph.D. Head of Department of Agricultural Economics and Rural Sociology, Uni- versity of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tcnn. Tennessee C.E.G. CECIL EDWARD GOLDING, LL.D., F.C.I. 1., F.S.S. Joint Secretary, Examiners' Committee, London Chartered Insurance Institute. Insurance. Accident and Health (in part),9t*. C.C.R.S. CHARLES ELY ROSESHERRINGTON, M.C., M.A., M.lnst.T. Secretary, British Railways Research Service, lec- turer in Economics. Cornell University, 1922-1924, and lecturer in Transport, London School of Economics (London University) 1924-1929. Railroads (in part) C.F.Ko. CHARLES F. KETTERING, E.E., M.E. Vice-Prcsident, General Manager, Research Laboratories Division, Gen- eral Motors Corporation. Motor Vehicles C.F.Lo. C. FRANCES LOOM IS, B.A. Editor, Department of Publications, Camp Fire Girls, Inc. Camp Fire Girls C.F.MoC. CHARLES FLOWERS MeCOMBS, B.A., B.L.S. Superintendent of Main Reading Room, New York Public Library, New York, N. Y. Libraries (in part) C.Fo. CHARLES FOX, M.A. Director of Training in the University of Cambridge, 1919-1938. Author of Educational Psy- chology; The Mind and Its Body; etc. Cambridge University C.Q.A. C. G. ABBOT. Secretary, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D. C. Smithsonian Institution C.Gd. CALVIN GODDARD, M.D. Lieutenant Colonel, Ordnance Department, U. S. Army. Historical Section, The Army War College, Washington, D. C. Member, Board of Direction, Society of American Military Engineers. Munitions of War C.Q.Fk. CHARLES G. FENWICK, Ph.D. Professor of Political Science, Bryn Mawr College, Bryn Mawr, Pa. Member of the Inter-American Neutrality Committee. Author of The Neutrality Laws of the United States; International Law; etc. Neutrality C.Gn. CLAYTON GEHMAN. Associate Economist, Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System, Washington, D. C. Prices C.H.Bd. C. H. BINFORD, A.B., M.D. Pathologist, U. S. Marine Hospital, Detroit, Mich. Instructor in Pathology, Wayne University Medical School, Detroit, Mich. Leprosy CJ.Br. CHARLES J. BRAND, A.B. Executive Secretary and Treasurer, The National Fertilizer Association, Washington, D. C. Fertilizers C.K.S. C.L.B. CLARENCE K. STREIT, LL.D., D.LItt. Author of Union Now. President of Federal Union, Inc. CLEMENT LINCOLN BOUVE, A.B. Register of Copyrights, Washington, D.C. Union Now Copyright C.L.P*. CHARLES L. PARSONS. Secretary, American Chemical Society. American Chemical Society C.M.An. CARLETON M. ALLEN. Lecturer on Wool and Woolen Textiles, Boston University, Boston, Massachusetts. Wool C.M.Br. C. M. BREDER, Jr. Director of New York Aquarium. Research Associate, American Museum of Natural History, New York. N. Y. Aquariums C.Mh. CONSTANCE MURDOCH. Secretary, Spelman Fund of New York. Spelman Fund of New York C.M.R. C. M. RITTENHOUSE. National Director, Girl Scouts, Inc. Girl Scouts C.N. CARL NORCROSS, Ph.D. Major, U. S. Army Air Corps. Managing Editor, Aviation. Author of Getting a Job in Aviation and co-author of The Aviation Mechanic. Aviation. Civil EDITORS AND CONTRIBUTORS xi C.O'D.I. COLUMBUS O*D. ISELIN. Director, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution. Associate Professor of Physical Oceanography, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts. Oceanography C.P.Co. CONWAY P. COE, A.B., LL.B. U. S. Commissioner of Patents, Washington, D. C. Patents C.P.S. CLIFFORD P. SMITH, LL.B. Editor of Bureau of History and Records of The First Church of Christ, Scientist, Boston, Mans. Christian Science C.R.Mr. CLYDE R. MILLER, Ed.D. Founder, Institute for Propaganda Analysis, New York. Associate Professor of Education, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, N. Y. Propaganda C.R.P. CHESLEY REYNOLDS PERRY. General Secretary, Rotary International. Rotary International C.Sa. CHRISTINE SANDFORD. Classical Tripos (Camb.) Resident in Ethiopia 15 years. Wife of Brigadier D. A. Sandford, D.S.O., O.B.E., principal Military and Political Adviser to the Emperor Haile Selassie 1941. Ethiopia (in part) C.S.L. C. SUMNER LOBINGIER, B.A., M.A., LL.M., Ph.D., D.C.L., D.Jur., J.U.D. Securities and Exchange Commis- sion Officer. Lecturer on Law, American University, Washington, D. C. Initiative and Referendum, etc. C.Sn. CARMEL SNOW. Editor of Harper's Bazaar. Fashion and Dress C.T.S. CORNELIA TYLER SNELL, B.S., M.A., Ph.D. Co-author with Foster D. Snell of Colorimetric Methods of Analysis. Vols. I and II; Chemicals of Commerce, Technical Editor, Soap and Sanitary Chemicals. Cellulose Products C.W.QI. ' CHARLES W. GILMORE, B.S. Curator of Vertebrate Palaeontology, United States National Museum, Washington. D. C. Palaeontology C.W.Ra. CHARLES W. RAMSDELL, Jr. Author of various historical works. Texas C.W.S. CARL W. STOCKS. Editor, Bus Transportation, New York. Motor Transportation (in part) Cy.M. CYRUS MACMILLAN. P.C., Ph.D. Professor of English and Chairman of the Department, Dean of the Faculty of Arts and Science, McGill University, Montreal, Canada. Prince Edward Island C.Z. CARL ZEISBERG. Former President, United States Table Tennis Association. Table Tennis D.A.C. DOROTHY A. CANNELL. Member of the editorial staff, 141)1 edition, Encyclopedia Britannica. Member of the Egypt Exploration Society. Aden (in part) Iran (in part) Netherlands (in part) D.An. DEAN ACHESON, LL.B., M.A. Assistant Secretary of State, Washington, D. C. Trade Agreements D.Bru. DAVID BRUNT, M.A., Se.D., F.R.S. Professor of Meteorology, Imperial College of Science and Technology, London, England. Meteorology (in part) D.B.S. DAVID BARNARD STEINMAN, B.S., C.E., Ph.D. Authority on the design and construction of long-span bridges. Bridges D.C.H.J. D. C. HENRI K JONES, F.L.A. Librarian and Information Officer, The Library Association, London. Libraries (in part) D.C.So. DAVID CHURCHILL SOMERVELL, M.A. Author of The British Empire; The Reign of King George the Fifth; Disraeli and Gladstone; etc. Great Britain and North- ern Ireland, United Kingdom of (in part) D. do S.P. DAVID de SOLA POOL, D.Ph. Rabbi, Spanish and Portuguese Synagogue Shearith Israel, New York, N. Y. Jewish Religious Life D.D.L. DON D. LESCOHIER, Ph.D. Professor of Economics, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis. Strikes and Look-outs Unemployment, etc. D.D.W. DAVID DUNCAN WALLACE, A.M., Ph.D., Lltt.D., LL.D. Professor of History and Economics in Wofford College, Spartanburg, South Carolina. South Carolina D.G.Wo. DOUGLAS G. WOOLF. Editor-in-chief, Textile World. Cotton (in part) Textile Industry D.Ka. DANIEL KATZ, Ph.D. Associate Professor of Psychology, Princeton University, Princeton, N. J. Psychology D.M.N. DONALD M. NELSON. Chairman, War Production Board. Wash., D.C., which superseded on Jan. 16. 1942, the Supply Priorities and Allocations Board, of which Mr. Nelson was Executive Director. Supply Priorities and Allocations Board D.O. DOROTHY ODENHEIMER. Research Assistant to the Director of Fine Arts, Art Institute, Chicago. Art Exhibitions, etc. D.R.G. DAVID ROBERT GENT. Rugby Football Critic to The Sunday Times, London. Football (in part) D.S.Mu. DAVID SAVILLE MUZZEY, A.B., B.D., Ph.D. Emeritus Professor of History, Columbia University, New York. United States (in part) D.St. DANIEL STARCH, M.A., Ph.D. Business Consultant and Director of the Department of Research, American Association of Advertising Agencies, New York. Advertising Radio (in part) D.V. DOUGLAS VEALE, C.B.E., M.A. Registrar of Oxford University. Fellow of Corpus Christi College. Oxford University D.W.B. D. W. BELL, LL.B., B.C.S. Under Secretary of the Treasury. War Debts D.Y.T. DAVID YANCEY THOMAS, Ph.D. Emeritus Professor of the Department of History and Political Science, Univer- sity of Arkansas, Fayetteville, Ark. Visiting Professor of Government, University of Texas, 1941-42. Arkansas E.Ab. EDITH ABBOTT, Ph.D., Lltt.D., LL.D. Professor of Social Economy and Dean, School of Scx-ial Service Administra- tion, University of Chicago. Social Service E.A.G. EDWARD ALPHONSO GOLDMAN. Senior Biologist, Fish and Wildlife Service, U. S. Department of the Interior, Washington, D. C. Fish and Wild Life Service (in part) E.A.Gd, EDGAR A. GRUNWALD. Marketing Editor, Business Week. Formerly Editor, Variety Radio Directory. Radio (in part) E.A.P. EDGAR ALLISON PEERS, M.A. Professor of Spanish, University of Liverpool, England. Author of A History of the Romantic Movement in Spain; Studies of the Spanish Mystics; etc. Portugal (in part), etc. E.A.Wr. ERIC ANDERSON WALKER. Vere Harmsworth Professor of Imperial and Naval History, Cambridge; King George V Professor of History, Cape Town, 1911-36. South Africa, The Union of (in part) E.Bd. EDWIN BORCHARD, A.B., LL.B., Ph.D., LL.D. Professor of International Law, Yale University, New Haven, Conn. International Law E.B.Do. EDWARD B. DUNFORD, LL.D. Attorney, Legal Department, The Anti-Saloon League of America. Anti-Saloon League C.B.L. EDGAR B. LAND IS. Trust Officer. Chemical Bank & Trust Company, New York. Former member of the Faculty of Columbia University Extension, American Institute of Banking. Banking E.B.Ph. EARLE B. PrIELPS, B.S. Professor, Sanitary Science, College of Physicians and Surgeons, New York. Public Health Engineering E.B.Rd. E. B. REID. Director, Information and Extension, Farm Credit Administration, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Wash., D. C. Federal Land Banks E.G.. EMILE CAMMAERTS. C.B.E., Hon. LL.D. Officier de 1'Ordre de Leopold; Professor of Belgian Studies and Institu- tions, University of London; author of Belgium, From the Roman Invasion to the Present Day; Albert of Belgium; etc. Belgium (in part) t etc. C.C.D.M. E. CHARLES D. MARRIAGE, B.A. Librarian, Nevada State Library, Carson City, Nev. Nevada E.C.Gr. E. C. GRIFFITH, M.A., Ph.D., Assistant Professor of Economics, University of Georgia, Athens, Ga. Georgia E.Cul. ELY CULBERTSON. Editor, The Bridge World Magasine. Honorary Member, American Contract Bridge League. Contract Bridge C.C.W. ERIC C. WILSON, B.A. Editor, University of Iowa News Service. Former Vice- President American College Publicity Association. Iowa, State University of E.D.C. ELIOT D. CH APPLE, A.B., Ph.D. Harvard Medical School. Author, with C. S. Coon, of Principles of Anthropology. Anthropology E.D.F. EDWARD D. FOSTER. Director, Colorado State Planning Commission, Denver, Colorado. Colorado E.D.K. ELDRED D. KUPPINGER. Acting Assistant Chief, Special Division, Department of State, Washington, D. C. War Relief Contributions n~ A-*- A xif EDITORS AND CONTRIBUTORS E.E.B. EDWARD E. BENNETT, Ph.D. Associate Professor of History and Political Science, Montana State University, Missoula, Mont. Montana E.C.D. EDMUND E. DAY, Ph.D., LL.D. President, Cornell University, Ithaca. N. Y. Cornell University E.E.Ha. EDWARD E. HAZLETT, JR. Commander, U.S.N. (retired). Former Submarine Commander. Instructor in the De- partment of English, History and Government at the Naval Academy, Annapolis, Maryland. Submarine Warfare E.E.Wo. EDITH ELMER WOOD, Ph.D. Author of Recent Trends in American Housing; etc. Housing (in part), etc. E.F.D. EDWARD F. DOW, Ph.D. Professor of Government and Head of the Department of History and Government, Univer- sity of Maine, Orono, Me. Maine E.F.GI. ERIC F. GASKELL. National Secretary, Canadian Author's Association. Editor, Canadian Author and Bookman. Canadian Literature E.GNI. ERNEST GRUENING, M.D. Governor of Alaska. r Alaska E.H.CI. EARLE H. CLAPP, A.B. Acting Chief, Forest Service, U. S. Department of Agriculture. Forests (in part) E.H.CO. EDWARD H. COLLINS. Associate Financial Editor, New York Herald Tribune. Gold (in part) E.H.He. ERNEST HERMAN HAHNE, M.A., LL.B., Ph.D. Professor of Economic*, Northwestern University, Evanston, 111. Contributor to the Encyclopaedia of the Social Sciences. Business Review E,H.Kr. EDWARD HENRY KRAUS, Ph.D., Sc.D., LL.D. Dean of the College of Literature, Science, and the Arts, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich. Mineralogy ' E.H.Q. EDITH H. QUIMBY. A.M., Sc.D. Atwistant Professor of Radiology, Cornell University Medical College, Ithaca, N. Y. Associate Physicist, Memorial Hospital, New York City. Radiology E.I.F. E. 1. FARRINGTON. Secretary, Massachusetts Horticultural Society and Editor of Horticulture. Horticulture E.J.C. EDWIN J. CAMERON, Ph.D. Director, Research Laboratories, National Canners Association, Canning Industry E.J.H. ERIC JOHN HODSOLL, C.B. Wing Commander, R.A.F. Inspector General of Civil Defense, Ministry of Home Security. Civilian Defense: Great Britain EJ.Pa. EDWARD J. PARKER. National Commander, U. S. A., The Salvation Army. Salvation Army EJs. EUGENE JO LAS. Editor of Transition. Author of Mots-Dilute; I Have Seen Monsters and Angels; Words from the Deluge. French Literature El. Ha. ELLIOTT HARRINGTON. Sales Manager, Air Conditioning & Commercial Refrigeration Department, General Electric Company, U. S. A. Air Conditioning E.L.R. E. LANSING RAY, LL.D. President and Editor, Si. Louis Globe-Democrat. St. Louis, Mo. St. Louis E.M.Cn. ERNEST M. CULLIGAN. Major, U. S. A. Specialist Public Relations Officer, Selective Service System, Wash., I). C Selective Service E.M.E. EMERY M. ELLINGSON. Pilot; Registered Professional Aeronautical and Airport Engineer; Technical Specialist, Safety Bureau, Civil Aeronautics Board. Airports and Flying Fields ELM. P. ERNEST MINOR PATTERSON, Ph.D. President, American Academy of Political and Social Science. Professor of Economics, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pa. Amerloan Academy of Political and Social Science E.O.E. EDWARD OLIVER ESSIG, M.S. Professor and entomologist, Experimental Station. University of California, Berk- eley, Calif. Author of A History of Entomology. Entomology E.O.U. EDWIN O. LEADER. Ph.B., LL.B. Rowing Coach, Yale University, New Haven, Conn. Rowing E.PJ. E. P. JORDAN, M.D. Assistant Editor, The Journal of the American Medical Association, Chicago, 111. Arthritis Cold, Common C.PJo. E. P. JOSLIN, M.D., So. D. Clinical Professor of Medicine (Emeritus), Harvard University Medical School, Boston, Mass. Diabetes E.R.E. EDWIN R. EMBREE, M.A., Lltt.D. President, Julius Rosenwald Fund. Illiteracy E.R.G. ERNEST R. GROVES, A.B., B.D. Professor of Sociology, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, N. C. Author of The American Family; Marriage; The Family and Its Social Functions; etc. Marriage and Divorce E.R.H. EDWARD R. HARDY, Ph.B. Secretary-Treasurer, Insurance Institute of America, New York. Fires and Fire Losses Insurance, Fire E.R.SS. E. R. STEtTINlUS, JR. Administrator, Office of Lend- Lease Administration, Washington, D. C. Lend- Lease Administra- tion, Office of E.S.L. EMORY S. LAND. Rear Admiral U.S.N. Chairman, U. S. Maritime Commission, Washington, D. C. Shipping, Merchant Marine (in part) E.T. EDWARD TUTHILL, M.A., Ph.D. Professor of History, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Ky. Kentucky F.A.C. FABIAN ARTHUR COLENUTT, M.A. Cantab. Head of the Administrative Section, Bank for International Settlements, Basle, Switzerland. Bank for International Settlements F.A.Pt. F. A. PEARSON, Ph.D. Professor of Prices and Statistics, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York. Agriculture (in Part) F.C.Bg. FRANKLIN C. BING, Ph.D. Secretary of the Council on Foods and Nutrition of the American Medical Association. Vitamins F.C.Bo. FRANK C. BOWEN. Writer on naval and merchant shipping subjects. Shipbuilding (in part), etc. F.C.K. FRED C. KOCH, Ph.D. Frank P. Hixon, Distinguished Service Professor (Emeritus) of Biochemistry, University of Chicago, Chicago, 111. Biochemistry F.C.St. FRANCIS C. STIFLER. Editorial and Recording Secretary, American Bible Society. American Bible Society F.C.W. FRANCIS CARTER WOOD. M.D. Director of Laboratories, St. Luke's Hospital, New York City. Emeritus Director, Cancer Research, Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons, New York, N. Y. Cancer F.D.R. FRANK D. REEVE, Ph.D. Assistant Professor of History, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, N. M. New Mexico F.D.S. FRANKLIN D. SCOTT, Ph.D. Associate Professor of History, Northwestern University, Evanston, 111. Author of Bernadotte and the Fall of Napoleon, etc. Greenland Sweden, etc. F.E.Do. FRANK EARL DENNY, A.B., Ph.D. Plant Physiologist. Boyce Thompson Institute for Plant Research, Inc., Yonk- ers, N. Y. Botany (in part) F.E.MoM. FRANCIS E. MoMURTRIE. Editor, Jane's Fighting Ships. London Naval and Shipping Correspondent of the Daily Telegraph, London. Navies of the World F.Gn. FELICIA GEFFEN. Secretary to the President, The American .Academy of Arts and Letters. American Academy of Arts and Letters F.H.L. FRANK H. LA HEY, M.D. Director of Surgery, Lahey Clinic, Boston, Mass. Surgeon- In-chief. New England Baptist Hospital; Surgeon-in-chicf, New England Deaconess Hospital. American Medleal Association FJ.B. FRANK J. BRUNO, S.T.B. Professor of Applied Sociology and Chairman of the Department of Social Work, Washing. ton University, St. Louis, Mo. FBAMtt 1 1A/II CSSM /~*U!*f TT!Arf C<*+^ CAM..A+ C .,!.. 1* AM >IM> T"\A*VA*MM* \X7naVtiMvt/% l"\ f* Relief F.J.W. F.L.F. Fi 1*1 FRANK J. WILSON. Chief, United States Secret Service, Treasury Department, Washington, D. C. FREDERICK L. FAGLEY, D.D. Associate Secretary, General Council of the Congregational and Christian Churches. PRANK L WEIL Pr*Mnt Th TiMvlfth Welfare RnarH Secret service, U. 5. Congregational Christian Churches Jewish Welfare Board kvWW. F.M.B. r fTMl^ r\ ! WWfcll. FTCIlQCIll, 1 HC JCWISII WCliarC DOttTQ. FRANCIS MARSH BALDWIN, Ph.D. Professor of Zoology and sometime Director of the Marine Station, University of Southern California, Los Angeles. Marino Biology F.M.K. r M s. F. M. KREML. Director, Northwestern University Traffic Institute, Evanston, Illinois. F. M. fiCTZLCR. Ph.B. H*nH Curator. D*nartmpnt nf Anthrnnnlrtov Smtthannian Institution. Wajihinffton. D. C. Accidents (in part) EDITORS AND CONTRIBUTORS xili F.M.V.T. FRANCIS M. VAN TUYL, Ph.D. Professor and Head of the Department of Geology, Colorado School of Mines, Golden, Colo. Geology (in part) F.R.Mo. FOREST RAY MOULTON, Ph.D., So.D. Secretary, American Association for the Advancement of Science. American Association for the Advancement of Science Fr.Ro. FREDERICK ROTHE. Chairman, Handball Committee of the New York Athletic Club, New York. Hand-ball F.R.Y. F. R. YERBURY, Hon. A.R.I. B.A. Managing Director, The Building Centre, London. Housing (in part) F.T.HI. FRANK T. MINES, Brigadier General, O. R. C. Administrator, U. S. Veterans Administration, Washington, D.C. Veterans Administration F.W.Ga. FREDERIC WILLIAM GANZERT, M.A., Ph.D. Associate Professor of History and Political Science, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah. Utah F.W.Rr. F. W. REICH ELDERFER, A.B., D.So. Chief, Weather Bureau, United States Department of Commerce, Washing- ton, D. C. Meteorology (in part) F.X.T. FRANCIS X. TALBOT, S.J., Lltt.D. Editor-in-Chief of America, National Catholic Weekly, New York. Plus XII Roman Catholic Church, etc. G.A.Ro. GAR A. ROUSH, A.B., M.S. Editor, Mineral Industry, New York. Copper Nickel, etc. G.A.SI. GORDON A. SISCO, M.A., D.D. Secretary, The United Church of Canada. United Church of Canada G.B.En. GEORGE B. EUSTERMAN, M.D. Head of Section in Medicine, Mayo Clinic. Professor of Medicine. University of Minnesota Graduate School, Minneapolis, Minn. Alimentary System, Disorders of G.B.P. G. BALEY PRICE, A.B., A.M., Ph.D. Associate Professor of Mathematics, University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kans. Mathematics G.D.H.C. GEORGE DOUGLAS HOWARD COLE, M.A. Fellow of University and Nuffield Colleges, and Reader in Economics. Oxford University; Chairman of the Nuffield College Social Reconstruction Survey. Labour Party; Labour Unions (in part), etc. G.E.Ed. GLEN E. EDGERTON, C.E. Brigadier General. Governor of the Panama Canal Zone. Panama Canal and Canal Zone G.E.Ho. G. E. HOFMEISTER. Vice-President, Continental Casualty Company, Chicago. Insurance, Automobile (in part) G.Gr. GILBERT GROSVENOR, M.A., Lltt.D., LL.D. Editor, National Geographic Magazine. Washington, D. C. National Geographic Society G.H.Ag. G. HARVEY AGNEW, M.D. Associate Secretary, Canadian Medical Association; Secretary-Treasurer, Canadian Hospital Council; Editor, Canadian Hospital. Hospitals G.J.N. GEORGE JEAN NATHAN, B.A. Critic and author of The Critic and the Drama; Encyclopaedia of the Theatre; Materia Critica, etc. Theatre (in part) GJ.S. GUY J. SWOPE. Director of the Division of Territories and Island Possessions, U. S. Department of the Interior. Hawaii South Sea and Equatorial Islands G.L.W. GEORGE L. WARREN, A.B. Executive Secretary, President's Advisory Committee on Political Refugees. Refugees G.L.Wf. G. L. WOODRUFF. Lt. Commander, U.S.N. (Ret.). Office of Island Government, Navy Department, Washington, D. C. Midway Islands Samoa, American, etc. G.M.C. GEORGE M. COATES, A.B., M.D., F.A.C.S. Professor of Otorhinology, Graduate School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pa. Editor in Chief, Archives of Otolaryngology. Ear, Nose and Throat, Diseases of G.M.Da. GAIL M. DACK, Ph.D., M.D. Associate Professor of Bacteriology, Department of Bacteriology and Parasitology, The University of Chicago, Chicago, 111. Bacteriology G.M.Du. GEORGE MATTHEW DUTCHER, Ph.D., LL.D. Professor of History, Wesley an University, Middletown, Conn. Formerly State Historian of Connecticut. Connecticut G.M.Hy. GRANT M. HYDE, M.A. Director, School of Journalism, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis. Newspapers (in part) G.MJ. G. MeSTAY JACKSON. President, G. McStay Jackson, Inc., Chicago, 111. Interior Decoration G.N.P. G. NEIL PERRY, B.A. Director, Bureau of Economics and Statistics, Province of British Columbia, Victoria. D C. British Columbia G.P. G. PARR, Grad.I.E.E. Editor klectronic Engineering] Hon. Secretary, the Television Society. Television (in part) G.P.Ba. G. PHILIP BAUER, Ph.D. Assistant Archivist Jn the Division of Labor Department Archives, The National Ar- chives, Washington, D. C. Elections G.R.G. G. R. GEARY, K.C. Barrister and Solicitor, Toronto, Canada. Toronto G.S.Br. G. STEWART BROWN, National Director of Public Information Service, The American National Red Cross, Wash- ington, D. C. Red Cross (in part) G.S.F. GUY STANTON FORD, B.L., Lltt.B., Ph.D., LL.D., Lltt.D., L.H.D. Executive Secretary, American Historical Association. American Historical Association G.St. GLEB STRUVE. Lecturer in Russian Literature at the School of Slavonic and East European Studies, University of London. Author of Soviet Russian Literature. Russian Literature G.W.Do. GEORGE W. DOUGLAS, A.M., Lltt.D. Formerly Chief Editorial writer of The Philadelphia Evening Public Ledger. Author of The Book of Days-, The Many-Sided Roosevelt, etc. Pennsylvania New York, etc. H.A.C. HOWARD A. CARTER, B.S. In M.E. Secretary, Council on Physical Therapy, American Medical Association. Deafness H.A.Dr. HUGH A. DRUM. Lieutenant General, U.S. Army; Commanding General, First Army; Headquarters First Army; Gov- ernors Island, N.Y. Chief of Staff, First Army, A.E.F. Armies of the World World War II H.A.H. HOWARD ARCHIBALD HUBBARD, Ph.D. Professor of History, University of Arizona, Tucson, Ariz. Arizona H.A.Mt. H. A. MILLIS, A.M., Ph.D. Chairman, National Labor Relations Board. Washington, D. C. National Labor Relations Board H.A.Wai. HENRY A. WALLACE, B.S. Vice-President of the United States. Economic Warfare, Board of H.Bce. HOWARD BECKER, A.M.. Ph.D. Professor of Sociology, University of Wisconsin, Madison. Wisconsin. Book Review Editor, American Sociological Review. Co-author of Systematic Sociology; Social Thought from Lore to Science; etc. Sociology H.BI. HERSCHEL BRICKELL. Editor, 0. Henry Memorial Award Prite Stories of 1041. Senior Cultural Relations Officer, U. S. Embassy, Bogota, Colombia. American Literature H.Bu. HERMAN N. BUNDESEN, M.D. President, Board of Health, Chicago. Epidemics and Public Health Control H.B.V.W. H. B. VAN WESEP. Chief, Information Service, The Rockefeller Foundation. New York. Rockefeller Foundation H.By. HAROLD BEELEY, M.A. Lecturer in History, University College, Leicester. Palestine (I'M part) H.C.Rd. HENRY CLAY REED, Ph.D. Assistant Professor of History, University of Delaware, Newark, Del. Delaware H.O.G. H. DON QUSSOW. Editor, Confectionery-lc* Cream World, New York. Candy H.E.BA. HARRY E. BARNARD, B.S., Ph.D., D.So, Research Director. National Farm Chemurgic Council. Flour and Flour Milling He.Br. HENRY BRufcRE, Ph.B. President, Bowery Savings Bank, New York. Savings Banks, Mutual H.FJL HAROLD F. AMBROSE. Senior Administrative Assistant to the Postmaster General, Post Office Department, Wash- ington, D. C. Post Office (in part) xiv EDITORS AND CONTRIBUTORS H.F.D.B. H. F. D. BURKE, O.B.E., M.lntt.C.E. Acting Secretary, Netherlands and Netherlands Indies Information Bureau Netherlands (in part) and the British Chamber of Commerce for the Netherlands East Indies (Inc.), London. Netherlands Colonial Empire (in part) H.Fx. HOWARD FOX, M.D. Emeritus Professor of Dermatology and Syphilology, New York University College of Medi- Dermatology cine, New York. H.O.K. HENRY G. KNIGHT. Chief, Bureau of Agricultural Chemistry and Engineering, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Chemistry and Engineer- Washington, D. C. ing, Agricultural, U. S. Bureau of H.O.Me. HAROLD O. MOULTON, Ph.D., LL.D. President of the Brook ings Institution, Washington, D. C. Brooking* Institution H.G.S. H. GERRISH SMITH. President, National Council of American Shipbuilders, New York. Shipbuilding (in part) H.H.A. HENRY H. ARNOLD. Major General, U. S. Army. Deputy Chief of (Staff for Air, Washington, D. C. Air Forces of the World (in part) H.Har. HERBERT HARLEY. Secretary-Treasurer, American Judicature Society. American Judicature Society H.H.Be. HUGH H. BENNETT, B.S., LL.D., D.So. Chief of the Soil Conservation Service, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Soil Erosion and Soil Washington, D. C. Conservation H.Hy. HUGH HARLEY. Secretary, United Brewers Industrial Foundation, N. Y. Brewing and Beer HJ.A. H. J. ANSLINGER, LL.B. Commissioner of Narcotics, United States Treasury Department, Washington, D. C. Drugs and Drug Traffic (in part) HJ.De. HERMAN J. DEUTSCH, Ph.D. Associate Professor of History, State College of Washington, Pullman, Washington. Washington HJt. HARLEAN JAMES, A.B. Executive Secretary, American Planning and Civic Association, Washington, D. C. Washington, D. C., etc. H.Ko. HANS KOHN, D. Jur. Sydcnham Clark Parsons Professor of History, Smith College, Northampton, Mass. Author of Czechoslovakia Force ur Reason; Revolutions and Dictatorships; Not By Arms Alone; etc. Communism, etc. H.L. SIR HARRY LINDSAY, K.C.I. E., C.B.E., Director, Imperial Institute, South Kensington, London, and Trade Com- Burma (in part) missioner for Burma. H.L.B. HOWARD LANDIS BEVIS, LL.B., S.J.D. President, Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio. Ohio State University H.L.Ms. HALLAM L. MOVIUS, Jr., Ph.D. Assistant Curator of Palaeolithic Archaeology, Peabody Museum of Archaeology Archaeology (in part} and Ethnology, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts. H.USt. HERBERT L. STONE. Editor, Yachting, New York. Author of America's Cup Races, etc. Motor-Boat Racing Yachting H.N.MaeC. HENRY N. MACCRACKEN, M.A., Ph.D., LL.D. President, Vassar College, Poughkeepsie, New York. Vassar College Ho.J.B. HORACE J. BRIDGES, D.LItt. Leader, The Chicago Ethical Society. Ethical Culture Movement H.P.D. HARLAN PAUL DOUGLASS, A.B., A.M., D.D. Secretary, The Federal Council of Churches of Christ in America. Christian Unity Author of A Decade of Objective Progress in Church Unity, etc. Religion H.P.R. HOMER PRICE RAINEY, Ph.D., LL.D. President, University of Texas, Austin, Texas. Texas, University of H.R.B. HORACE ROBERT BY EPS, A.B., S.M., Sc.D. Associate Professor of Meteorology, University of Chicago, Chicago, Drought 111. Author of Synoptic and Aeronautical Meteorology and numerous scientific articles. H.R.Bd. H. R. BLANFORD, O.B.E. Former Chief Conservator of Forests, Burma. Editor-General, Empire Forestry Associa- Forests (in part) tion, London. H.R.P. HELENA R. POUCH (Mrs. William H. Pouch). President General, National Society Daughters of the American Daughters of the Revolution, Washington, D. C. American Revolution H.R.V. HENRY R. VIETS, M.D. Lecturer in Neurology, Harvard Medical School; Neurologist, Massachusetts General Hos- Psychiatry pital. Librarian, Boston Medical Library. H.3n. HARRY SIMONS. Technical Editor and Publisher, The Clothing Trade Journal, New York. Clothing Industry H.T. HENRY TETLOW, B.A. Henry Tetlow and Company. Soap, Perfumery and Cosmetics H.T.Ch. HUNG-TI CHU, Ph.D. Ex-Commissioner of the Kuomintang Central Executive Committee for Yunnan Province. China Fellow of the Central Government to study in the United States, 1930-1934. Member of the Kuomintang since 1923. Chinese-Japanese War, etc. H.W.Ch. HARRY WOOD BURN CHASE, Ph.D., LL.D., Lltt.D. Chancellor, New York University, New York. New York University H.W.Do. HAROLD W. DODDS, Lltt.D., LL.D. President, Princeton University, Princeton, N. J. Princeton University H.W.L. HARRY W. LAIDLER. Executive Director, League for Industrial Democracy, New York. Member, New York City Socialism (in part) Council. H.W.Pa. HAROLD W. PAINE. Director, Arlington Research Laboratory, Plastics Department, E. I. du Pont de Nemours and Plastics Industry Company, Arlington, N. J. H.W.RL SIR HERBERT W. RICHMOND, K.C.B., C.B. Admiral, R.N. Master of Downing College, since 1936. President of Naval War College, 1920-23. Author of Sea Power in the Modern World, etc. Sues Canal H.Z. HOWARD ZAHNISER. In Charge of Current and Visual Information, Division of Public Relations, Fish and Wildlife Fish and Wild Life Service, U. S. Department of the Interior. Service (in part) I.Bn. INNIS BROWN, B.A. Managing Editor, The American Golfer, New York. Co-author of A Guide to Good Golf and Golf Swinging into Golf. .Bo. ISAIAH BOWMAN, Ph.D., LL.D. President, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland. Johns Hopklnt University .Br. IVOR BROWN. Dramatic critic of the Observer, London. Professor of Drama to the Royal Society of Literature. Theatre (in part) .B.W.S. IDA B. WISE SMITH. President, National Woman's Christian Temperance Union. Woman's Christian Temperance Union .L.BI. IRENE L. BLUNT. Secretary, The National Federation of Textiles, Inc., New York. Linen and Flax, etc. .L.K. ISAAC LEON KANDEL, Ph.D., Lltt.D. Professor of Education, Teachers Collegt, Columbia University, New York City. Education .St. IRVIN STEWART, Ph.D.. LL.B. Executive Secretary, Office of Scientific Research and Development. Executive Secretary, National Defense Research Committee; Executive Secretary, Committee on Medical Research. Scientific Research and Development, Office of J.A.Q. J. A. GARY. Editor, Furniture Age, Chicago, Illinois. Furniture Industry J.A.Ma. J. ARTHUR MATHEWSON, K.C. of Mathewson, Wilson and Smith, Barristers, Montreal, Canada. Montreal J.A.MI. JOHN ANDERSON MILLER, Ph.B. Editor of Transit Journal, New York. Electric Transportation J. A. My. J. A. MYERS, M.D. Professor of Medicine and Preventive Medicine and Public Health, University of Minnesota Medi- Tuberculosis cal School, Minneapolis, Minn. J.A.S.W. JAMES A. SCOTT WATSON. Sibthorpian Professor of Rural Economy, University of Oxford. Agriculture (in part) J.A/To. JAMES A. TOBEY, Dr. P. H., LL.D. Director. American Institute of Baking, New York. Bread and Bakery Products J.B.HU. J. B. HUTSON. Preaident, Commodity Credit Corp., U. S. Dcpt. of Agric., Washington, D. C. Commodity Credit Corporation J.B.P. JOSEPH B. PEARMAN. Sports essayist, commentator and authority on athletics. Former Olympic athlete. Traok and Field Sports Wrestling, etc. J.C.He. JOSEPH CLARENCE HEMMEON, A.M., Ph.D. Professor of Economics and Head of the Department of Economics and Political Science. MrGill University, Montreal, Canada. Ontario Quebec, etc. EDITORS AND CONTRIBUTORS xv J.C.Mn. JAMESC. MALI N, Ph.D. Professor of History, University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas. . Kansas J.C.Pa. JOHN C. PAGE. Commissioner, Bureau of Reclamation, U. S. Department of the Interior, Washington, D. C. Aqueducts J.E.Ar. JAMES E. ARMSTRONG. Secretary of Notre Dame Alumni Association. Notre Dam*, University of J.E.H. J. EDGAR HOOVER, LL.M. Director, Federal Bureau of Investigation, U. S. Department of Justice, Washington, Federal Bureau of D. C. Investigation J.E.Mo. JOY ELMER MORGAN, A.B., B.L.S. Editor of the Journal of the National Education Association, Washington, D. C. National Eduoatlon Association J.Eu. JOHN EUSTICE, B.Sc., A.R.S.M., A.M.I.C.E. Formerly Professor of Engineering, and Vice Principal University Floods and Flood Control College, Southampton. (in part) J.E.W. JAMES EDWARD WEST, LL.B., LL.M., LL.D., M.H. Chief Scout Executive, Boy Scouts of America. Boy Scouts J.Fe. JAMES FORGIE, M.lnst., C.E., M. Am. See. C.E. Internationally known authority on tunnels. Tunnels J.F.Gr. J. F. GARDINER. Bond editor, Chicago Journal of Commerce. Bonds J.F.Ws. JOHN F. WILLIAMS. Major General. Chief of the National Guard Bureau. National Guard J.G.Bo. JOHN G. BOWMAN, A.M., LL.D., Lltt.D. Chancellor of the University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pa. Pittsburgh J.H.Fa. JOHN H. FAHEY. Chairman, Federal Home Loan Bank Board; Chairman, Board of Directors of Home Owners' Loan Fodoral Homo Loan Corporation, and Board of Trustees for the Federal Savings and Loan Insurance Corporation, Washington, D. C. Bank System, etc. J.H.FI. JOSEPH H. FUSSELL, D.Th. Secretary General, The Theosophical Society, Point Loma, California. Theosophical Society, The J.H.L. JOHN HOWLAND LATH POP, A.B., B.D., Ph.D., D.D. Minister of the First Unitarian Congregational Society in Unitarian Churoh Brooklyn, New York. J.H.Ts. J. H. TOWERS. Rear Admiral U. S. N., Chief of the Bureau of Aeronautics. Air Foroes of the World (in JJ.K. J. J. KRAL. Statistician of the Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce (Retired), U. S. Department of Commerce. International Trade, etc. JJ.MoE. J. J. MoENTEE. Director, Civilian Conservation Corps, Federal Security Agency, Washington, D. C. Civilian Conservation Corps JJ.Sw. JAMES JOHNSON SWEENEY. Lecturer, Fine Arts Institute, New York University, New York, N. Y. Author of Painting Plastic Redirections in Twentieth Century Painting; Joan Miro. J.KI. JAMES KENDALL, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. Professor of Chemistry in the University of Edinburgh; formerly Lieutenant Chemloal Warfare Commander in the United States Naval Reserve, acting as Liaison Officer with Allied Services on Chemical Warfare. J.L.F. J. L. FRAZIER. Editor, The Inland Printer, Chicago. Printing J.L.He. JOHN L. HERVEY. Author of Racing in America; American Race. Horses; The Old Cray Mare of Long Island; etc. Horse Racing (in part) J.L.J. J. L. JOHNSTON. Librarian, Provincial Library, Winnipeg, Manitoba. - Manitoba J.L.N. JOHN LLOYD NEWCOMB, A.B., C.E., Hon.D.Sc., LL.D. President, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Va. Virginia, University of J.L.S. J. L. SCHLEY. Major General. Chief of Engineers, United States Army. Rivers and Harbours (in part) , etc. J.M.Ca. J. M. CALLAHAN, A.M., Ph.D. Research Professor of History, West Virginia University, Morgantown, West Virginia. West Virginia J.M.L. JAMES MILLER LEAKE, Ph.D. Professor of History and Political Science, University of Florida, Gainesville. Florida J.Mr. JOHN MAIR. Writer and literary critic. Contributor to The New Slatesman and to the London Neu>s Chronicle. English Literature J.N.F. JEROME N. FRANK, Ph.B., J.D. Chairman, Securities and Exchange Commission. Author of Law and the Modern Bankruptcy Mind; Save America First. J.P.D. JAMES P. DAWSON. Writer on baseball and boxing, The New York Times. Boxing J.P.J. JOHN PRICE JONES, A.B. President and Treasurer, The John Price Jones Corporation, New York. Author of The Donations and Bequests Yearbook of Philanthropy. J.R.CI. J. REUBEN CLARK, Jr., B.S., LL.B. First Counselor, Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints, Salt Lake City, Mormons Utah. J.R.H. JOSEPH RALSTON H AYDEN, Ph.D., LL.D. James Orin Murfin Professor of Political Science and Chairman. Depart- ment of Political Science, University of Michigan. Author of The Philippines: A Study in National Development. Philippines, Common- wealth of the J.R.J. JAMES R. JOY, Lltt.D., LL.D. Librarian and Historian, The Methodist Historical Society in the City of New York. Methodist Churoh J.R.Tu. JOHN R. TUNIS. Writer on tennis. Tennis J.S.Br. JOHN STEWART BRYAN, M.A., LL.B., Lltt.D., LL.D. President, The College of William and Mary, Williamsburg, Virginia Virginia. President and Publisher, Richmond Newspapers, Inc., Richmond, Va. J.S.Cu. JAMES S. CUNNINGHAM, Jr., M.A. Instructor in Social Studies, San Mateo Junior College, San Mateo, California Brazil (in ar/),eto. J.S.G. JAMES STEELE GOW, A.B., Ed.M. Director, Falk Foundation, Pittsburgh, Pa. Falk Foundation, The Maurice and Laura J.S.L. JOHN S. LUNDY, M.D. Professor of Anaesthesia, University of Minnesota Graduate School, Minneapolis, Minn. Anaesthesia Head of Section on Anaesthesia at the Mayo Clinic. J.T.Ar. JOHN TAYLOR ARMS, S.B., S.M., M.A., Lltt.D. President, Society of American Etchers. Etching J.T.C. JOHN THOMAS CULLITON, B.A., M.A. Assistant Prof, of Economics and Political Science, McGill Univ. .Montreal, Canada (in Part), etc. Can. J.T.W. JOHN T. WINTERICH, A.B. Member of The Dolphin editorial board, New York. Author of A Primer of Book Book-collecting Collecting; etc. * J.V.Do. JOHN V. DODGE. Editorial Department. Encyclopedia Britannica. Publishing (Book) J.V.L.H. JOHN V. L. HOG AN. Consulting Engineer. President, Interstate Broadcasting Co., Inc. (WQXR). President, Faxi- Television (in part) mile, Inc. Author of The Outline of Radio. Radio (in part) J.W.BI. JAMES WASHINGTON BELL, Ph.D. Professor of Banking, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois. Secretary- American Economic Treasurer and Editor of Proceedings, American Economic Association. Association J.W.So. JAMES WALTER SCHADE, A.B. Director of Research (Retired, December 31. 1941). The B. F. Goodrich Company. Rubber and Rubber Manufacture K.B.S. KATHLEEN B. STEBBINS. Secretary and Advertising Manager, Special Libraries Association, New York. Special Libraries Association K.F.L. KATHARINE F. L EN ROOT, B.A. Chief, Children's Bureau, U. S. Department of Labor, Washington, D. C. Child Welfare K.Ge. KATRINE R. C. GREENE. Assistant Secretary of the American Council of the Institute of Pacific Relations. Co- Pacific Relations, author of Part II of the Economic Survey of the Pacific Area, Transportation and Foreign Trade. Institute of K.L.W. KARL L. WILDES. Associate Professor, Electrical Engineering, Mass. Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Mass. Electric Transmission and Distribution K.R.B. KENNETH R. BENNETT. Ph.D. Instructor in Agricultural Prices and Statistics, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y. Agriculture (in part) Co-author of Statistical Methods. K.S.L. KENNETH S. LATOURETTE, D.D.. Ph.D. Professor of Missions and Oriental History. Yale University, New Haven, Foreign Missions Connecticut. K.Sm. KAZIMIERZ SMOGORZEWSKI. Polish journalist (Paris, Berlin, etc.); founder (London. 1039) and editor, Fret Poland Europe; author of Poland's Access to the Sea (London, 1934); etc. xvi EDITORS AND CONTRIBUTORS K.T.C. KARL T. COMPTON, M.S., Ph.B., Ph.D., D.So., LL.D. President, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cam- Massachusetts Institute bridge, Mass. President, American Association for the Advancement of Science. of Technology L.A.L. LEROY A. LINCOLN. President, Metropolitan Life Insurance Company. Insurance, Lift L.A.M. LOUIS A. MCRILLAT, M.D.V., V.S. Editor of the Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association and Ameri- can Journal of Veterinary Research. Author of Veterinary-Military History of the United States. Veterinary Medicine L.A.We. LUTHER ALLAN WEIGLE, Ph.D., D.D., Lltt.D., S.T.D., LL.D. Dean of the Divinity School, Yale University, Sunday Schools New Haven, Conn. President, Federal Council of Churches. Church Membership L.B.Ba. LEWIN B. BARRINQER. Glider Speciality. Air Staff, Army Air Forces, Washington, D. C. Gliding L.B.Br. LESTER B. BRIDAHAM. Public Relations Counsel, Art Institute, Chicago. Author of Gargoyles, Chimeres and the Art Galleries and Art Grotesque in French Gothic Sculpture. Museums L.B.S. LEMUEL B. SCHOFIELD, A.B., M.A., LL.B. Special Assistant to the Attorney-General in Charge of the Immigration Immigration and Emigra- and Naturalization Service, Department of Justice. Professor of Criminal Law, Temple Univ. , Philadelphia, Pa. tion L.C.De A. LOUIS C. Do ARMOND, A.B., M.A. Department of History, University of California, Berkeley, California. Costa Rlea (in part) Cuba (in part), etc. L.C.S. LOUIS CARTER SMITH, B.S., LL.B., LL.M. Secretary-Treasurer, National Archery Association of the United Arohery States, Boston, Mass. L.de B.H. L. do BREDA HANDLEY. Honorary coach, Women's Swimming Association of New York. Author of Swimming for Swimming Women; etc. L.D.Sh. LESLIE D. SHAFFER, B.S., B.D. Secretary, American Friends Fellowship Council. Friends, Religious Society of L.D.U. LENT D. UPSON, Ph.D. Director. Detroit Bureau of Governmental Research, Detroit L.D.W. LEONARD D. WHITE, B.S., M.A., Ph.D. Professor of Public Administration, University of Chicago, Chicago, 111. Author of Introduction to the Study of Public Administration; Government Career Service; etc. Civil Service L.Ef. LOUIS EFFRAT. Member of The New York Times sports staff. Billiards L.C.L. LEWIS E. LAWES, Hon. D.So. Former Warden, Sing Sing Prison, Ossining, New York. Prisons L.C.T. LEON E. TRUESDELL, Ph.D., Se.D. Chief Statistician for Population, United States Bureau of the Census, Wash- Census, 1940 ington. Author of Farm Population of the U. S. L.Qn. LESTER GIBSON, Director of News Bureau, American Bankers Association. American Bankers Association L.Qu. LUTHER QULICK, Ph.D., Lltt.D. Director, Institute of Public Administration, New York, N. Y. Professor of Municipal Government Municipal Science and Administration, Columbia University, New York. L.G.V.V. LEWIS GEORGE VANDER VELDE, Ph.D. Professor of History and Director of the Michigan Historical Collections, Michigan University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich. L.H.D. LAWRENCE HAWKINS DAWSON. Author of Introduction to London: etc. Editor. Routledge's Encyclopaedia', The George VI, etc. March of Man\ etc. L.H.Ds. LAWRENCE H. DIERKS. Manager, Public Relations Department, Kiwanis International. Klwanls International L.H.L. LEWIS HARPER LEECH, M.A. Editorial writer, Chicago Daily News. Chicago Illinois L.Hn. LEON HENDERSON. Administrator, Office of Price Administration, Washington. D. C. Prloe Administration, Office of L.J.Br. LYMAN J. BRIGGS, Ph.D., LL.D., Se.D., Eng.D. Director, National Bureau of Standards, U. S. Department Standards, National of Commerce, Washington, D. C. Bureau of L.K.F. LAWRENCE K. FOX. Secretary, South Dakota State Historical Society, Pierre, S.D. South Dakota L.Kn. LOUIS KAPLAN, B.L.S., Ph.D. Reference Librarian, University of Wisconsin, Madison. Author of Research Mate- Wisconsin rials in the Social Sciences. Editor of Review Index. L.M.F. LEONARD M. FANNING. Publisher of Petroleum Code Handbook, 1931-1934. Author of The Rise of American Oil. Petroleum L.Mo. LUIS MONGUI:.-'' . ' .ft MARCH 1 Admission of Nebraska to union; 75th anniversary. 1 St. David's day, patron saint of Wales. 2 Texas Independence day. 2 Total eclipse of moon begins; ends March 3. 9 Greatest brilliancy of Venus. 12 Girl Scout day, U.S.A. 16 Partial eclipse of sun begins; ends March 17. 17 St. Patrick's day, patron saint of Ireland. 21 Equinox. Beginning of spring. THE year 1942 of the Christian Era corresponds to the year of Crea- tion 5702-5703 of the Jewish calendar; to the year 1360-61 of the Mohammedan hegira; to the i'6th of the United States; and to the i74th year of the Encyclopedia Britannica. 25 Annunciation. Quarter day. 29 Palm Sunday. 30 Seward day, Alaska; 75th anni- versary, purchase of Alaska by U.S.A. APRIL 1 All Fools' day. 2 Maundy Thursday. 2 Jewish Passover, 1st day. 2 IT. S. mint established; 150th an- niversary. 3 Good Friday. 5 Easter Sunday. 6 U. S. declaration of war on Ger- many in World War I; 25th anni- versary. 6 Army day. 14 Pan-American day. 23 St. George's day. 25 St. Mark's day. ""'"' 26 Confederate Memorial day (also May 10, June 3). MAY 1 May day. International labour festival. 5 Cinco de Mayo, Mexican holiday. 10 Rogation Sunday. ,?' 10 Mother's day. l 14 Ascension day. 21 Death of Hernando de Soto; 400th anniversary. 22 Shebuoth (Jewish Pentecost). 24 Empire day. Queen Victoria born, 1810. 24 Pentecost (Whitsunday). 27 St. Bede's day. 30 Memorial or Decoration day, U.S.A. 31 Trinity Sunday. 31 Union day. South Africa. JUNE 1 Admission of Kentucky to union; 150th anniversary. 4 Corpus Christi. 9 Trooping the colour in honour of King George VI's birthday. His majesty was actually born on Dec. 14. 11 Feast of St. Barnabas. 14 Flag day. 21 Father's day. 22 Solstice. Beginning of summer} longest day. 22 Second anniversary, signing of Franco-German armistice. 24 St. John's day. 30 St. Paul's day. JULY 1 Dominion day, Canada; 75th an- niversary. 4 Independence day, 7 Fifth anniversary, beginning of Chinese-Japanese war. 14 Bastille day. 15 St. Swithin's day. 22 Feast of St. Mary Magdalene, 26 St. Anne's day. AUGUST 1 Swiss Independence day. 4 Birth of Percy Bysshe Shelley; 150th anniversary. 6 Feast of the Transfiguration. 10 Feast of St. Lawrence. 12 Partial eclipse of sun. 15 Assumption. 24 Feast of St. Bartholomew, 26 Total eclipse of moon. SEPTEMBER 1 Third anniversary, beginning of World War II. 3 Third anniversary, entrance of Great Britain into World War II. 7 Labor day, U.S.A. and Canada. 10 Partial eclipse of sun. 12 Rosh Hashanah (Jewish New Year), beginning year 5703. 14 Election day in Maine. 16 Mexican Independence day. 17 Constitution day. 21 YomKippur (Jewish Day of Atone- ment). 23 Equinox. Beginning of autumn, 26 Dominion day, N f ew Zealand. 26 Succoth (Jewish Feast of Taber- nacles), 1st day. 29 Michaelmas. Quarter day. 30 Feast of St. Jerome. OCTOBER 4 Feast of St, Francis of Assis,. 12 Columbus day; 450th anniversary, discovery of America. 21 Trafalgar day. 25 St. Crispin and St. Crispinian. 27 Navy day, U.S.A. 30 Mussolini's inarch on Rome; 20th anniversary. 31 Hallowe'en. NOVEMBER 1 All Saints' day. All Hallows. 3 General election day, U.S.A. 5 Guy Fawkes' day. 9 Lord Mayor's show, London. 11 Armistice day. 16 Feast of St. Edmund. ,y v : 26 Thanksgiving day, U.S.A. 29 First Sunday in Advent; beginning of ecclesiastical year. 30 St. Andrew's day, patron saint of Scotland. DECEMBER 5 U.S.S.R. Constitution day. 7 First anniversary, Japanese at- tack on Pearl Harbor. 7 Birth of Mary, Queen of Scots; 400th anniversary. 8 Immaculate Conception. 8 U.S. declaration of war on Japan; 1st anniversary. 17 Aviation day, U.S.A. 21 Forefathers' day. 22 Solstice. Beginning of winter; shortest day. 25 Christmas. 26 Boxing day. English bank holiday. 28 Childermas. Holy Innocents' day. CALENDAR OF EVENTS, 1941 For elections, disasters and assas- sinations of 1941, see under those headings In the text. For obituaries of prominent persons who died during 1941, see under the entry Obituaries. JANUARY I Unidentified planes be- I lieved to be German raided parts of Eire; attacks were re- peated during two following days, when Dublin was bombed. Presence of German war- planes and pilots in Italy to assist in Mediterranean cam- paign against British admitted in Rome. 2 William Allen White resigned as chairman of the Committee to Defend America by Aiding the Allies after reported rift on "short-of-war" policies. 3 First session of the 77th United States congress con- vened; Sam Rayburn (Dem,, Tex.) re-elected speaker of house. 4 Syrian high commission- er, Gen. Henri Dentz, placed under command of Gen. Wey- gand by Vichy gov't. 5 Bard I a occupied by Aus- tralian shock troops after two-day assault by land, sea and air; British claimed capture of more than 35,000 Italian prison- ers. William D. Leahy, new U.S. ambassador to France, arrived in Vichy. BPres. Roosevelt, in annual message to congress, declared U.S.A. should act as arsenal to supply all necessary war sup- plies to democracies defending themselves against aggressor na- tions. Office of Production Man- agement, new "super-de- fense council, established by ex- ecutive order of Pres. Roosevelt; William S. Knudsen was named director general and Sidney Hill- man associate director general. 8 Budget minimum of $17,- 485,528,049 in expenditures for fiscal year 1942, including $10,811,314,600 for defense, pre- sented to congress by Pres. Roosevelt; deficit was estimated at $9,210,093,049. Husband E. Kimmel named commander in chief of U.S. fleet; navy was divided into Pacific, Atlantic and Asiatic fleets. 9 Retreat of French forces on Cambodian frontier after battles with Thai troops admit- ted by military authorities in Indo-China. 7 Harry L. Hopkins, special en- voy of Pres. Roosevelt to Brit- ain, arrived in London; he con- ferred next day with Churchill, Halifax and Eden. mBilj giving president un- limited power to lease or loan U.S. materials of war to friendly foreign powers intro- duced simultaneously in house and senate. Germany and U.S.S.R. signed trade agreement described by D.N.B., official nazi press asso- ciation, as "largest grain deal in history/' Fall of Kllsura to Greek forces announced in Athens. Recapture of Buna in Kenya colony announced by British, who also claimed capture of El Wad in Italian Somaliland and start of advance into Eritrea. German -I tali an commu- nique announced that first joint axis air attack in Mediter- ranean had damaged four British warships on Jan. 10. 10 Wendell L.Will kieendors- \L ed U.S. lend-lease bill, but suggested time limit for presi- dential powers conferred by measure. Clarence A. Hathaway, former editor of communist New York Daily Worker, expelled from party. 10 Gen. Ubaldo Soddu re- 10 lieved as commander of Ital- ian forces in Albania; Gen. Ugo Cavallero, chief of staff, suc- ceeded him. B Hearings on lend-lease bill opened by house com- mittee on foreign affairs. Sir Gerald Campbell, high commissioner to Canada, ap* pointed British minister to U.S. A. to assist Viscount Halifax, new ambassador. K Immediate appropria- tion of $350,000,000 for 200 new merchant ships requested of congress by Pres. Roosevelt. 11 Weapons, ships and 1 1 planes, but no armies from U.S.A. in 1941, asked by Win- ston Churchill in Glasgow speech attended by Harry L. Hopkins. Kassala in Anglo-Egyptian Su- dan recaptured by British. W Marshal Retain and Pierre Laval composed dif- ferences after meeting, accord- ing to Vichy communique. Republican party would "never again gain control of the Amer- ican government" if it endorsed a blind opposition to lend-lease bill, said Wendell L. Willkie in address at New York city. British aircraft carrier "Illus- trious" bombed by nazi planes in Mediterranean for thira time in eight days. MPres. Roosevelt conferred with Willkie in Washington and gave him personal note for Winston Churchill. U.S.A. apologized to Germany for incident in which U.S. sailor ripped swastika flag from nazi consulate in San Francisco. OC Rioting In Milan and other &J northern Italian cities in presence of German troops re- ported from Belgrade. 20 Franklin D. Roosevelt in- augurated for third term. British mechanized forces pene- trated Eritrea to depth of 30 miles. a U.S.A. lifted "moral em- bargo" on aircraft and avia- tion gasoline levied against U.S.- S.R. during Finnish war. Renewed disorders between Iron Guard and regular army broke out in Rumania; hundreds killed in clashes of following days. 22 Tobruk fell to British after 36-hour attack. James C. Me Reynolds resign- ed from U.S. supreme court. Wendell L. Willkie left aboard transatlantic plane for "fact- finding" tour of Great Britain. Japan offered to mediate Thai- French dispute over Indo-China border, 00 Stalemate in European war &0 predicted by Col. Charles A. Lindbergh in testimony on lend-lease bill before house for- eign affairs committee; he sug- gested a negotiated peace to end conflict. Dean Q. Acheson nominated assistant sec'y of state by Pres. Roosevelt. 04 Viscount Halifax, British L'J ambassador to U.S.A., was personally welcomed to new post by Pres. Roosevelt aboard bat- tleship "King George V" in Chesapeake bay. Bucharest reported collapse of Iron Guardist rebellion after es- timated casualties of 6,000; gov't placed blame for uprising upon Horia Si ma, Iron Guard leader. 26 Wendell Willkie arrived in London. OTf SOS supposedly sent by L I "Empress of Australia" re- ported British liner sinking off west Africa, but London declar- ed ship was safe and suggested message was nazi hoax. Japanese Premier Konoye asked "forgiveness of the emper- or and the people" for "billions of yen . . . spent and 100,000 officers and men sacrificed" in Chinese war. 00 Capture of Murzuk in southern Libya by Free French after forced march from Lake Chad region announced in broadcast by Gen. Georges Ca- troux, who led assault on Italian garrison. OQ Alexander Korlzls ap- 4.V pointed Greek premier fol- lowing death of Gen. John Me- taxas. Of! British entered Derna, vU Libya, after unexpected 3- day resistance by Italian de- fenders. Adolf Hitler declared that ships of any nationality bringing aid to Britain would be torpedoed; he prophesied that 1941 would see complete axis victory. 01 Thai-French armistice ul signed aboard Japanese cruiser at Saigon. FEBRUARY I Sec'y of Navy Frank Knox told senate foreign relations committee he was "positive" the axis would invade western hem- isphere if Britain were over- whelmed. 2 Fierce rioting broke out in Johannesburg, South Africa, between soldiers and anti- Brit- ish demonstrators. British armies captured Agor* dat, strategic mountain railroad town in Eritrea, 100 mi. west of Massawa. 3 Pres. Batista of Cuba oust- ed three "seditious" military leaders, assumed command of republic's armed forces and sus- pended constitutional guaran- tees for 15 days. U.S. supreme court -upheld constitutionality of Wages and Hours law; in another decision, CALENDAR OF EVENTSO941 FEBRUARY Continued the court ruled that disputes be- tween unions do not come under the Sherman Anti-trust act. 4 British army of Nile drove 45 mi. beyond Oerna and captured ancient city of Cyrene in Libya. Wendell Willkle flew to Dub- lin for a "frank, free discussion" with Hire Prime Minister Kamon De Valera. Lend-lease bill might involve U.S.A. in war in 90 days, Gen. Robert K. Wood of America First committee told senate for- eign relations committee. 5 U.S. secret service began fingerprinting and photo- graphing Washington correspon- dents assigned to White House. Wendell Willkie left London for U.S.A.; he asked newsmen to "tell the Germans" that M we German-Americans hate tyran- ny and the nazi regime." 6 Pres. Roosevelt named John G. Winant to be U.S. ambas- sador to Great Britain. 7 British forces in Africa captured Bengasi, major Ital- ian port in east Libya. Germany's annual wartime tax bill estimated at 34,0(K),- 000,000 marks by K.W. Schmidt, director of the Deutsche bank. 8 Lend -lease bill, empower- ing Prcs. Roosevelt to trans- fer military equipment to Brit- ain, passed in house of repre- sentatives by vote of 260 to 165. 9 British need for U.S. tools and war supplies rather than U.S. soldiers emphasized by Churchill in radio broadcast. British warships hurled 300 tons of shells into Genoa, damag- ing oil tanks, ships and main power plant; 72 civilians killed and 226 wounded in bombard- ment, Rome announced. Pierre Etienne Flandin resign- ed from foreign ministry in Vichy cabinet and was succeed- ed by Adm. Jean Darlan, who also took over post of vice- premier. , N Great Britain broke off diplomatic relations with Rumania. H Wendell Willkie, in U.S. after war tour of England, urged U.S. to speed aid to Brit- ain. MBill raising the ceiling on U.S. national debt from $49,000,000,000 to $65,000,000,- 000 approved by senate. British parachute soldiers landed in southern Italy in at- tempt to sabotage communica- tions; Rome reported all were captured. 1C Pres. Roosevelt dispatch- IJ ed James B.Conant, pres- ident of Harvard university, to Kngland on mission to exchange war science data with British. 1C Britain in desperate and ID immediate need of U.S. help, declared Harry Hopkins on return from 4-week trip in Eng- land. |"l Japan, through official If spokesman, offered its serv- ices to end all wars, and blamed U.S. and Britain for continued conflict. Bulgaria and Turkey signed nonuggression pact. Supreme court upheld decision sentencing Earl Browder, general sec'y of U.S. communist party, to four years in prison for pass- port fraud. Royal air force, in 1,800-mi. round-trip flight, dropped leaf- lets over Poland. If! Large Australian army 10 landed at Singapore; Cana- dians advised to leave China and Japan. U.S. Undersec'y of State Sumner Welles rejected Jap- an's mediation offer; said United States was more interested in deeds than in words. |Q Fortification of Guam Iv naval base voted by U.S. house of representatives. M British armies crossed Juba river and penetrated Italian Somali land. a Soviets expelled Maxim Litvinov, former foreign commissar, from central commit- tee of communist party for "in- ability to discharge obligations." A "dangerous situation" might result from Anglo- Amer- ican defense measures in the far east, Japanese Foreign Minister Yosuke Matsuoka warned. Rome gov't slashed rations of fats, olive oil and butter by 50%. 00 Premier Mussolini ad- mitted Italian defeats in Libya and Greece, but declared that German aid would help him defeat British and Greeks. Sixteen strikes blocked $60,- 000,000 in defense orders in fac- tories throughout U.S. O4 Hitler announced in a fcT 1 speech in historic Munich beer-cellar that he was planning a gigantic U-boat war against Britain. "White race must cede Ocea- nia 11 to the Japanese, Foreign Minister Yosuke Matsuoka told Japanese diet; he defined ' 'Ocea- nia" as huge area in Pacific ca- pable of supporting 600,000,000 people. Pres. Roosevelt asked congress for $3,812,311,197 in appropria- tions for army. Office of Production Manage- ment placed aluminum on pri- orities list. Communist party of U.S. named Robert Minor as general sec'y- MPres. Roosevelt placed bans on export of berylli- um, graphite electrodes, atro- pine, belladonna, sole leather and belting leather. Soviet union approved budg- et of 215,400,000,000 roubles, a third of which was earmarked for national defense. OfJ British armies captured &U Mogadishu, capital of Ital- * ian Somaliland, climaxing 220- mi. dash in 48 hours. 01 Italy sent Spain a bill for LI 7,500,000,000 lire for ctid given Franco during Spanish civil war. U.S. war department sent two squadrons of planes to the Phil- ippines and six squadrons to the new Alaskan base. Ginger Rogers and James Stewart won 1940 awards of Academy of Motion Pictures for best cinema performances of year. OO A plan offered by the Office of Production Management ended C.I.O. strike at Bethlehem Steel corporation's Lackawan- na plant. Senator Wheeler assailed lend -lease bill as move to war and dictatorship in the U.S. U.S. completed secret remov- al of $8,500,000,000 in gold from New York city to subterranean gold vaults at Fort Knox, Ky. MARCH (Bulgaria signed Rome- Ber- lin-Tokyo pact, permitting German troops to march into Sofia. German military authorities fined the city of Amsterdam 15,- 000,000 guilders as a penalty for disorders against nazi occupa- tion. 2 Turkey closed Straits of Dardanelles to all ships, ex- cept those having special per- mits. Bulgarian Premier Philoff told parliament in Sofia that the German "mission" in Bulgaria was there solely to l 'preserve peace" in the Balkans. 3 Soviet union denounced Bulgarian adherence to axis pact. Office of Production Manage- ment placed magnesium on U.S. defense priorities list. 5 Nazis passed death sen- tences on 18 Netherlanders convicted of committing acts of terrorism and sabotage against Germans. Ex-King Carol of Rumania and Mme. Lupescu fled Spain and crossed frontier into Portu- **:,;->*: 6 U.S. requested Italy to close two consulates in U.S. and to restrict the movements of Italian consular agents. 7 Pres. Roosevelt denounced jurisdictional strikes hamper- ing defense production. Off ice of Production Manage- ment placed nickel and neo- prene and other synthetic rub- bers on defense priorities list. The pictures on this page are, left to right: HOPKINS Jan. 9 RETAIN Jan. 18 HALIFAX Jan. 24 WINANT Fb. 6 WILLKIE Feb. 11 CALENDAR OF EVENTS*1941 MARCH Conf/nt/ed All Italian Somali land fell to British troops; Italians fled into Ethiopia. 8 Senate passed lend -lease bill by vote of 60 to 31. "The democratic way of life" in the United States could not survive if democracy over the rest of the world died, Pres. Roosevelt said in radio broad- cast. Rumanian Premier Antones- cu gave Hitler, Goering and Mussolini power to veto all Ru- manian economic agreements with foreign countries. Greeks resumed offensive in Albania. W Marshal Retain appealed to U.S. for food to ward off famine in France; Vice-Premier^ Admiral Darlan said French navy' would fight if Britain interfered with food convoys. France, under Japanese pres- sure, ceded Indo-Chinese terri- tories to Thailand (Siam). Bus strike tied up New York city traffic. Lend-lease bill signed by Pres. Roosevelt. Nazis sank 29 ships totalling 148,038 tons in week ending March 2, London admiralty ad- mitted. 10 Pres. Roosevelt urged con- \L gress to appropriate $7,000,- 000,000 to speed arms to the democracies. Prime Minister Churchill thanked the U.S. for enacting the lend-lease bill, which he termed a "new Magna Carta." M Naval bill asking $3,446,- 585,144 for building of two- ocean navy was passed by U.S. house of representatives. 1C Pres. Roosevelt in radio Iv speech told U.S. that entire nation had to make sacrifices in order to defeat dictatorships. The pictures on this page are, left to right: MATSUOKA Feb. 21 WHEELER Fb. 28 CAROL Mar. 5 CVETKOVITCH Mar. 25 SIMOVITCH Mar. 27 KNo help could save Brit- ain, Chancellor Hitler told audience of nazi leaders. n The "Bremen," 51,000- 1 1 ton German liner, was re- ported ablaze. I A U.S. house of representa- 10 tives passed bill earmark- ing $7 ,000,000,000 to aid "democ- racies resisting aggression." Pres. Roosevelt announced cre- ation of 11 -man board to medi- ate strikes involving defense in- dustries. U.S. and Canada signed pact to develop Great Lakes-St. Law- rence waterway "for defense pur- poses." 20 Plymouth shattered by nazi air raid. Throngs in Sydney cheered ar- rival of seven U.S. warships. a Three Yugoslav minis- ters quit cabinet in protest against gov't's readiness to join axis. New York bus strike ended after 11 days. OO Grand Coulee dam in LL Washington started opera- tion, two years ahead of schedule. C.I.O. called strike at Bethlehem Steel plant, Beth- lehem, Pa. U.S.S.R. and Turkey ex- changed neutrality pledges. 25 Yugoslav Premier Cvetko- vitch and foreign minister signed axis pact in Vienna. Marshal Graziani "retired at his own request" as commander of Italian armies in Libya and as chief of the Italian general staff. OC Yugoslavs revolted against &U axis pact; heavy police de- tachments guarded Belgrade. French colonial garrisons clamped martial law on several Syrian cities after uprisings in Damascus and Aleppo. British cut meat ration to six ounces weekly per person. 01 Yugoslav army ousted pro- L I axis government leaders and placed young King Peter II on throne. Gen. Dushan Simovitch, new premier, rushed mobiliza- tion of 1,200,000 men; Belgrade greeted coup with joy; U.S. promised moral and material support to new anti-axis regime, and Churchill vowed to help Yugoslavs "to defend their free- dom and native land." British troops seized Cheren, important city in Italian Kri- trea. OQ Bethlehem plant in LV Johnstown, Pa., and C.I.O. strikers signed agreement to end walkout, while C.I.O. workers at another Bethlehem plant in Cam- bria, Pa., started new strike. OQ British Mediterranean 4.J fleet battered Italian naval units in fierce engagement off Cape Matapan, Greece, sinking three cruisers and two destroyers and crippling a 35,000-ton bat- tleship. Ofl U.S. seized 65 axis-con- OU trolled ships docked in U.S. ports. French shore batteries in Al- geria fired on British naval units attempting to intercept a French convoy believed laden with war supplies for German units in Africa. C.I.O. strikers voted to return to work at International Harves- ter plant in Chicago. German and Italian nation- als tied from Belgrade. 01 Germany and Italy pro- 01 tested to U.S. against ship seizures; U.S. department of justice issued warrants to arrest 100 nazi and 775 Italian seamen on charges of sabotage. Yugoslavia's armed forces ready for war, Premier Gen. Dusan Simovitch told countrv in proclamation; nazi envoy left Belgrade. Strike launched by 400,000 soft-coal miners after operators and C.I.O. leaders failed to reach agreement. Violence flared at Allis-Chal- mers plant near Milwaukee when police used armoured car and tear gas bombs to disperse 3,000 C.I.O. pickets who tried to prevent nonunion men from en- tering the plant. . < APRIL (Germans charged Yugo- slavs with persecution of German racial minorities. British forces In Africa cap- tured Asmara, capital of Italian Eritrea. Gov. Heil of Wisconsin ordered work halted in Allis-Chalmers plant after C.I.O. pickets and sympathizers engaged in three- hour battle with police. 2 C.I.O. strike forced closing of Ford's River Rouge plant. Four were killed and six wounded in riots between soft- coal strikers and nonunion min- ers in Marian, Ky. 3 U.S. asked Italy to recall her naval attach^ to Wash- ington. . ; Nazi-Italian armoured units in Libya forced British troops to evacuate the port of Bengasi. 4 German armies, pouring through Hungary, Rumania and Bulgaria, massed at fron- tiers adjacent to Yugoslavia and Greece. Pro-axis leader in Iraq ousted pro- British premier in coup d'etat. Aduwa fell to British troops in Ethiopia. 5 6 Nazi armies invaded Yu- goslavia and Greece; Hit- ler denounced Belgrade govern- ment for "intriguing" with Britain; U.S.S.R. signed 5-year 11 n aggression and friendship pact with Yugoslavia; nazis bombed Belgrade. U.S. Sec'y of State Hull as- sailed nazi invasion of Greece and Yugoslavia as "barbarous"; controlled soviet press also blamed nazis for invasion. Addis Ababa capitulated to British army in Ethiopia. U.S. Defense Mediation board won agreement from both man- agement and union to end 75- day Allis-Chalmers strike. 7 Royal air force bombed Sofia, Bulgaria; Yugoslavs took Scutari in Albania after launching offensive against Ital- ian forces; Greeks lost Thrace to nazi armoured units, but re- sisted pander thrust into Struma valley. London severed diplomatic relations with Budapest. Britain raised basic income tax rate 50% to 10 shillings on the pound. CALENDAR OF EVENTS*1941 APRIL-Conf/nued NLRB ordered collective bar- gaining elections among workers at Ford's River Rouge and Lin- coln plants and at Bethlehem Steel's Lackawanna plant. 11 Honour 1 ' forbade French attack on British, Marshal Retain declared in broadcast to nation. 8 German army broke through Varclar valley pass, menacing Greek force defending Salonika; nazi forces in Yugo- slavia took Skoplje. Axis forces In North Africa captured Libyan port of Derna; British retreated to Tobruk. 9 Nazi army captured Sa- lonika, splitting Greece in two; Yugoslav army pierced Italian line in northern Albania, taking two towns; Nish fell to German troops advancing in Yugoslavia. British planes bombed heart of Berlin, damaging State Opera house and other buildings. German and Italian forces In Libya captured six British gen- erals and 2,000 men; British took Massawa, port in Italian Eritrea. Prime Minister Churchill ap- pealed to U.S. for aid in keeping Atlantic sea lanes open. mU.S. revealed agreement with Danish envoy in Wash- ington to protect Greenland against aggression, giving U.S. right to build bases on island. 80,000 Greek prisoners taken in fighting east of Vardar river valley, German high command announced; Berlin also reported capture of 20,000 Yugoslav pris- oners and important gains in Yugoslavia. Turks ordered evac- uation of Istanbul. Ten -day Ford strike set- _ _ tied by Governor Van Wag- oner of Michigan; both Henry Ford and C.I.O. agreed to con- cessions. Nazi mechanized units launched fierce attack against Anglo-Greek flank in the Fiorina area; German troops swept through Yugoslavia and made contact with their Italian allies; Hungarian armies invaded Yu- goslavia. 10 Italians claimed advance \L in Yugoslav-Albanian fron- tier sector; Hungarian army oc- cupied Subotica; U.S.S.R. de- nounced Hungary for invading Yugoslavia. Nazi-occupied Denmark de- clared "void" the agreement signed between U.S. and Danish envoy in Washington. B Soviet union and Japan signed neutrality pact un- der which Russia recognized Tokyo's suzerainty over Man- choukuo while Tokyo pledged to respect the Moscow-dominated Outer Mongolian People's Re- public. Nazi mechanized troops occu- pied Bardia in Libya, driving British forces back across the Egyptian frontier. Stiff Anglo-Greek resistance slowed German drive in Balkans; nazi troops occupied Belgrade. Pope Pius, in annual Easter message, appealed to all belliger- ents to refrain from using "still more homicidal" weapons. M German-Italian motor- ized forces crossed the Egyptian frontier, taking town of El Sollum. British troops retired to new defense line in Greece near Mount Olympus; German high command said Yugoslav army was virtually destroyed. BNazI army advanced 60 mi. into Greece; Italian forces launched twin offensive on the Greek-Albanian frontier; Hitler and Mussolini gave recog- nition to new, independent state of Croatia. U.S. army should be prepared to fight anywhere, Sec'y of War Stimson said. Four men were killed, includ- ing president and vice-president of a coal mine, and a score were wounded in gun battle involving striking miners and operators of coal mine near Middlesboro, Ky. M Nazis established new line 60 mi. within Greece; surrender of the second Yugo- slav army based at Sarajevo an- nounced by German high com- mand; Greek troops abandoned Koritza to Italian forces on Albanian front. Steel prices In U.S. were "frozen" at prevailing levels by Price Administrator Henderson. |"1 Entire Yugoslav army If surrendered; German tank divisions methodically drove back Greek and British armies. Axis drive eastward along riorth African coast stalled near EJgyp- tian frontier. U.S. motor car industry vol- untarily agreed to cut produc- tion by 1, 000,000 cars, beginning Aug. 1, 1941. 18 Allied armies In Greece retired to new lines. Retaliating for nazi raid of April 16 on London, R.A.F. sub- jected Berlin to a heavy bomb- ing. BNazI troops captured Mt. Olympus from Australian units. British landed strong forces in Iraq to guard Mosul oil fields. Vichy dispatches said 53 French vessels had been "requisitioned," presumably by nazis. Soviet-Japanese pact aimed at "foiling" Anglo-American ef- forts to draw U.S.S.R. into war, declared Pravda, official com- munist party organ. 0(1 U.S. -Canadian pact for Lit co-operation in producing war materials for Britain was signed by Prime Minister Mac- kenzie King and Pres. Roosevelt. 01 Nazis reported British Ll armies in Greece fleeing in evacuation ships. Emmanuel Tsouderos became Greek premier, succeeding Alex- ander Korizis, who had commit- ted suicide. 00 King George II of Greece LL (led Athens for Crete as the Greek army of Epirus and Mace- donia surrendered to nazis; Brit- ish forces held the mountain pass at Thermopylae. 00 British and Greek troops slowed up nazi drive in rear- guard action to cover evacua- tion; nazi armoured divisions broke through Thermopylae pass. * 1,000 tons of shells were pour- ed into Tripoli by British war- ships. Allied rear-guard troops delayed German forces at Thermopylae pass; nazi bomb- ers pounded Peiraeeus, port of Athens, while German mechan- ized divisions advanced to with- in 35 mi. of the Greek capital. M Immediate extension of U.S. neutrality patrol areas in Atlantic waters was an- nounced by Pres. Roosevelt. OC German panzer units Lit raced across Corinth canal in effort to trap fleeing Allied troops near Athens. Of Increasing U.S. aid would Li help British empire pass through the "long, stern, scowl- ing valley" of war to victory, Churchill declared in a broad- cast to the empire and the U.S. Nazi mechanized divisions marched into Athens; German forces also occupied Patras on the Peloponnesus. 00 British Imperial armies continued to evacuate Greece; Berlin claimed destruc- tion of 285,000 tons of British shipping in Greek waters; Ital- ian troops occupied Corfu. Col. Lindbergh resigned his commission as a reserve officer in the U. S. air corps, declaring that Pres. Roosevelt's remarks questioning his loyalty left him "no honourable alternative." U. S. supreme court decision ruled that Negroes are entitled to train accommodations equal to those given white passengers. The 28-day strike of the soft- coal miners in the U. S. ended as coal operators in the southern states agreed to a wage boost of $1 per clay. The Venezuelan congress elec- ted Gen. Isaias Angarita Medina president of Venezuela. M Soviet union banned ship- ment in transit through U.S.S.R. of war materials des- tined for foreign use. British authorities evacuated women, children and aged from Plymouth after a series of fierce nazi air raids. OH British succeeded in evac- OU uating 48,000 of the 60,000 troops originally landed in Greece, Churchill told commons. Russian press reported that 12,000 German troops, equipped with tanks and big guns, had landed at Abo in southern Finland. MAY IU. S. Maritime commis- sion announced plans were underway to shift 50 U. S. oil tankers to the service of Britain. Lord Beaverbrook was trans- ferred from the ministry of air- craft production and became British minister of state. Iraqi troops massed at Hab- bania airdrome after the British rejected an ultimatum from the pro-axis Baghdad government to evacuate the airfield. Sale of U. S. defense bonds and stamps was opened to the public. 2 Iraqi artillery shelled the British forces holding the Habbania airdrome. 3 British beat back Iraqi troops in the Basra area while R.A.F. planes bombed Iraqi batteries shelling British garri- son in Habbania airfield. Italy annexed Ljubljana, cap- ital of Slovenia a Yugoslav ter- ritoryand the area surround- ing it. Federal Communications commission adopted new regu- CALENDAR OF EVENTS*1941 MAY-Conf/nued lations designed to prevent mo- nopolies in radio broadcasting. 4 Pres. Roosevelt declared the U. S. "ever ready to fight again" for its existence; Hitler boasted that Germany and her allies could defeat "any possible coalition in the world.' 5 Robert E. Sherwood won the annual Pulitzer prize for drama with his play There Shall Be No Night\ the New York Times and Westbrook Pegler, columnist, also won Pulitzer awards. Two French freighters with 14,000 tons of U. S. flour in their holds reached Marseilles. 6U. S.Sec'yof WarStimson urged the United States to use its navy to escort war sup- plies to Britain. Joseph Stalin assumed the pre- miership of the soviet union following the resignation of Vyacheslav Molotov from that office; Molotov, however, con- tinued in the post of foreign commissar. Eleven American fliers, who ferried planes across the Atlantic from Canada to Britain, were reported among the 122 persons lost at sea when the boat on which they were travelling was sunk by a torpedo. The U. S. banned all exports to the soviet union of machinery or equipment needed for U. $. defense production. Halle Selassie returned to the Ethiopian throne he lost in 1936 to Italian armies. 7 House of representatives voted 266 to 120 to seize foreign vessels tied up in U. S. ports. House of commons approved Britain's war policy in a 447 to 3 vote of confidence given to Churchill. British land forces, aided by the R.A.F., succeeded in break- ing the siege laid by Iraqi troops around Habbania airdrome. German authorities, in a deal with French Vice-Premier Dar- lan, agreed to cut the cost of military occupation of France by 25%. 8 Waves of nazi bombers swarmed over Britain, strik- ing particularly at the Hull area; British reported shooting down 50 of the raiders in 30 hours. Axis planes raided the Suez canal zone. Germany, in a note delivered to the state department, pro- tested the U.S. government's move to seize German ships tied up in U.S. ports. 9 Three hundred British planes poured tons of bombs over Hamburg and Bremen. Soviet Russia withdrew diplo- matic recognition from the exiled governments of Yugoslavia, Bel- gium and Norway. mNazi bombers "blitzed" London, subjecting the Brit- ish capital to a fierce battering. 1,443 merchantmen totalling 5,961,044 tons employed in Brit- ish interests had been sunk since the war began, the admiralty disclosed. Eleven shipbuilding plants in the San Francisco area working on defense contracts were shut down by a strike. Rudolf Hess, Hitler's personal deputy, flew to Scotland and made a parachute landing near Glasgow; he broke his ankle on landing, was rushed to a hospital and held incommunicado. Nazi bombers showered London with 100,000 bombs, destroying house of commons chamber and damaging West- minster abbey, Westminster hall, the Egyptian section of the Brit- ish museum and Big Ben. 10 German statement on the \L flight of Rudolf Hess to Scotland said the nazi leader was suffering from "hallucina- tions and a mental disease." Adm. Darlan, Vichy vice-pre- mier, conferred with Adolf Hitler. 13 Germans proclaimed the northern part of the Red sea a war zone. MB! 1 1 increasing the crop loan rate from 75 to 85% of parity was passed in the senate. Twenty-one "flying fortress* es" completed a secret mass flight to Hawaii. B General Motors corp. averted a strike of 250,000 workers at 61 plants by accept- ing a National Defense Media- tion board peace plan and giving workers a 10-cent-an-hour wage boost. Marshal Retain placed his stamp of approval on the Dar- lan-Hitler talks and appealed to the French people to follow him on the road of "honour and national interest." Pres. Roosevelt, concerned over Franco-German "collaboration," appealed to the French people not to support the Retain policy. U.S. Coast Guard, acting on the president's orders, seized every French vessel, including the giant liner, "Normandie," in U.S. harbours. Bolivian gov't decreed expro- priation of the Lloyd Aereo Boli- viano, a German airline operat- ing in Bolivia. Completed five months ahead of schedule, the 35,000-ton U.S. battleship "Washington" joined the fleet. K Royal Air Force planes bombed German troop- carrying planes based at air- dromes in Syria; Britain an- nounced that Syria was "enemy- occupied territory" and pro- claimed the Syrian coast a danger zone. Key town of El Soil urn on the Libyan border was stormed and recaptured by British. II The axis air forces and 1 1 the R.A.F. traded blows in the near east, with German planes bombing British positions and British raiders attacking German and Italian concentra- tions in French-controlled Syria. The soviet gov't concluded a diplomatic and trade agreement with the new Iraqi gov't. 10 A postwar reconstruction 10 program giving all nations access to raw materials and ban- ishing nationalistic trade barriers was suggested by Sec'y Hull in a radio address. The Duke of Spoleto, cousin of King Victor Emmanuel III, became king of Croatia. M Mayor La Guardia was named by Pres. Roosevelt to head Office of Civilian Defense. 91 ,000 hard-coal miners ended a one-day strike after anthracite operators agreed to a demand for wage increases and paid vaca- tions. Agents of the "Big Five" rail- road brotherhoods voted to demand a 30% increase in wages to meet the increased cost of living. Italian force of 7,000 com- manded by the Duke of Aosta surrendered to British forces in Alagi, Ethiopia. MThe nazis launched an aerial invasion of Crete, landing 7,000 parachute troops from gliders; Churchill admitted a serious battle was under way for mastery of the island. British troops seized Feluja, Iraq, 35 mi. west of Baghdad. Egyptian steamer "Zamzam" was sunk in the south Atlantic in mid-April, it was announced in Berlin; all 312 passengers, in- cluding 138 Americans, and the ship's crew were reported safe. Of The German foreign of- 41 flee asked the U.S. to with- draw its diplomatic representa- tives from Paris, the state dep't. announced. A submarine, presumably Ger- man, sank the U.S. freighter "Robin Moor" in the south Atlantic. 00 Air-borne nazi parachute LL troops won a foothold on Crete, seizing Candia and the Maleme airport; Churchill ad- mitted that the R.A.F. with- drew from the Crete battle be- cause its single airdrome on the island was hopelessly battered; German dive-bombers claimed the sinking of four British crui- sers and several destroyers in the Crete action. British forces in Iraq estab- lished new positions only 20 mi. from Baghdad. A warning to Vichy that Brit- ain would bomb strategic areas in unoccupied zones unless the French immediately halted their German collaboration policy was sounded by Foreign Minister Anthony Eden. The C.I.O. won a sweeping vic- tory in the collective bargaining poll in two Detroit Ford plants, defeating the A.F. of L. by a vote of 5 1,866 to 20,364. M German planes landed re- inforcements at Maleme air- drome as nazi air-borne con- tingents renewed their drive to oust Allied forces from Crete. R.A.F. bombers crushed an Iraqi counterattack against Brit- ish forces at Feluja, OJThe "Hood," 42,500-ton fc*T British battle cruiser, was blown to bits by the 35,000-ton German battleship "Bismarck" between Greenland and Iceland. German parachute troops were firmly entrenched in west- ern Crete while nazi bombers continued to blast British war- ships. OC U.S. convoys aiding Brit- L J ain would be regarded as a "plain act of war?' German Grand Admiral Erich Raeder announced in an interview. Britain threw a giant naval dragnet around the northeastern Atlantic in the quest for the Ger- man battleship "Bismarck." Narrowly escaping capture, King George of Greece fled Crete for Cairo. 26 N.J. A 15-mlnute test black- out was staged in Newark, CALENDAR OF EVENTS. 1941 -Continued A new draft of all men who reached 21 after the first regis- tration was ordered by Pres. Roosevelt; it was estimated 1,000,000 youths would be affected. German forces in Crete drove back British imperial armies to points 15 mi. from Suda bay. Eire Prime Minister De Va- lera warned Britain not to apply conscription to Ulster. The German battleship "Bismarck" was sunk 400 mi. off the French coast after a running sea battle with British. Pros. Roosevelt proclaimed an unlimited national emergency to place the U.S. on a war footing. Churchill abandoned the plan to apply conscription to northern Ireland to avoid friction with the government of lure. 00 Germany's air-borne &0 army captured Canea, cap- ital of Crete, and pressed drive to oust British warships from Suda bay. R.A.F. planes, raiding an Ital- ian convoy near French Tunisia, bombed port of Sfax and scored direct hit on a French freighter. M British armies started to evacuate Crete following nazi seizure of Suda bay and Candia. A general preference order de- signed to give defense and vital civilian needs first call on all steel products was signed by K. R. Stettinius, priorities direc- tor of OPM. Mlraq Premier Rashid AM tied to Iran as British troops reached the outskirts of Baghdad. German forces controlled the whole northern coast of Crete as Anglo-Greek resistance col- lapsed. 01 Secretary of Interior Jl Ickes was appointed by Pres. Roosevelt as Petroleum Co-ordinator for National De- fense. An armistice was signed in Baghdad between Britain and Iraq, ending month-old war. The British Board of Trade announced that, clothing would be rationed, starting June 1. Four big bombs were dropped on Dublin by unidentified planes, killing 27 and injuring 200. JUNE I The abandonment of Crete to the axis was ad- mitted by the British war office in an announcement declaring 15,000 troops were safely eva- cuated from the island. 2 Hitler and Mussolini con- ferred for five hours at the Brenner pass on axis military and political moves. Charles Evans Hughes retired as chief justice of the U.S. supreme court. 3 The British Labour party voted at its 40th annual con- vention to continue the war until the axis was crushed. 4 The R.A.F. bombed Beirut, in preparation for an inva- sion of tne French mandated territories of Syria and Lebanon. Axis planes staged their first air raid over Alexandria, Kgypt, killing an estimated 150 persons and injuring 200 others. SSec'y Hull warned Vichy that a policy of collaboration with Germany would meet with sharp disapproval in the U.S. 6 Rumours that the British were seeking peace were branded by Pres. Roosevelt as falsehoods deliberately circulated by na/is. Bill authorizing the U.S. to requisition foreign ships lying idle in U.S. harbours was signed by Pres. Roosevelt. 8 An Allied force of British and Free French troops in- vaded Syria from three points. 9 U.S. army took over strike- bound North American Avia- tion plant upon order of Pres. Roosevelt. The Selective Service admin- istration ordered reclassifica- tion of essential defense workers "where they have ceased to per- form their jobs." A strike of C.I.O. die-casters closed the Cleveland plant of the Aluminum Co. of America. Allied forces pushing into Syria n eared the key cities of Damascus and Beirut. MA majority of strikers at the North American Avia- tion plant voted to return to their jobs. The U.S. was already in the war, declared Premier Mussolini in a speech to the Italian nation. H C.I.O. strikers at alumi- num plant in Cleveland ac- cepted U.S. Defense Mediation board's plan to resume work on defense orders totalling $60,000,- 000. The massing of nazi troops on soviet frontiers increased tension between the reich and U.S.S.R. 10 Harlan Fiske Stone was \L appointed chief justice of the U.S. supreme court by Pres. Roosevelt; Sen. James F. Byrnes (Dem., S.C.) and Attorney-Gen- eral Robert II . Jackson were named associate justices. BU.S. war dep't asked for a 50% slash in motor car pro- duction. MPres. Roosevelt ordered immediate free/ing of all assets of axis and axis-occupied countries; Japan was not in- cluded in the order. 1C Italy retaliated for U.S. 13 action in holding axis assets by free/ing U.S. funds in Italy. K Closing of all German consulates,! ravel and prop- aganda agencies in the U.S. was ordered by the state department. Sec'y Ickes banned shipment of 252,000 gal. of lubricating oil bound for Japan. Thirty-five survivors of the U.S. freighter "Robin Moor," assertedly sunk by a German U-boat, were rescued by a Brit- ish vessel, thus accounting for all passengers on the torpedoed boat. U.S. state department ordered a ban on the entry of refugees with relatives in Ger- many and German-occupied ter- ritory. Ifl 9 ermany and Turkey 10 signed a 10-year friendship treaty. v ^Y Joe Louis, heavyweight boxing champion, knocked out Billy Conn in the 13th round of a close bout. prisal for action closing all axis consulates in the U.S. The OPM announced plans to ration rubber in an effort to reduce U.S. domestic consump- tion by 25%. 20 Finland ordered general mobilization. Pres. Roosevelt branded the sinking of the freighter "Robin Moor' as an act of "piracy" and as a German effort to intimidate the U.S. Pres. Roosevelt placed a curb on oil shipments from the Atlan- tic coast to all countries, save the Allies and Latin-American na- tions. Ford Motor company signed union shop contract with the United Automobile Workers (C.I.O.). 01 The U.S. ordered the Ital- Zl ian gov't to shut all its con- sulates in U.S. territory. Damascus, ancient city and capital of Syria, fell to British and Free French forces. The Moscow radio announced that 1,500,000 Russian children would leave large soviet cities "to participate in various scien- tific expeditions"; this move co- incided with reports that Rus- sian civilians were fleeing western frontiers. ,-.. ' : >'' OO German armies launched LL an invasion of U.S.S.R. on three huge fronts stretching from the Baltic to the Black sea; nazi panzer units penetrated Russian Poland. British Prime Minister Churchill promised economic and technical support for U.S. S.R.; any state that fought against Hitler would have Brit- isn aid, he added. Following the lead of her axis partner, Italy declared war on U.S.S.R.; Turkey proclaimed her neutrality. *'.> j j 23 German mechanized for- ces captured Brest-Litovsk. 19 Germany and Italy ex- pelled U.vS. consuls in re- The pictures on this page are, left to right: DARLAN May 12 HULL May 18 AOSTA May 19 DE VALERA May 26 RASHID ALI May 30 CALENDAR OF EVENTS*1941 JUNE Continued M Warsaw and Constanta fcT bombed by soviet planes; German forces reported gains on all sectors of Russian front. Pres. Roosevelt pledged U.S. to give U.S.S.R. all possible aid and ordered the release of $40,- 000,000 in soviet credits frozen June 14. OC Nazi panzer divisions L J penetrated soviet lines south of Kaunas and east of Warsaw; Russian troops repulsed German attacks on the Bcssarabian front; Russian planes bombed Finnish cities; Sweden affirmed her neutrality, but announced that permission had been grant- ed for the passage of one nazi division from Norway across Swedish territory to Finland; Turkey assured the soviet union of her neutrality; Pres. Roose- velt announced the neutrality act would not be invoked against Russia. Leon Henderson, federal price control administrator, stated that the gov't would fix all motor car prices. German motorized divi- sions cracked Russian lines between Grodno and Bialystok to reach lines 50 mi. from Minsk; another panzer force reached the sector between Luck and Brody; Russian air force pounded nazi bases in Rumania and Hungary; Finland entered the war on the side of the nazis in a "defensive capacity," according to Pres. Risto Ryti. Pope Pius XII, in a message to the 9th national eucharistic con- gress in St. Paul, Minn., warned that a current of "black pagan- ism" was menacing the world. 01 Russian troops retreated L I along a broad sector stretch- ing from Lithuania to the Pripet marshes to prepared positions defending Minsk; Hungary de- clared war on the soviet union. U.S. Senate passed bill provid- ing $10,384,821,624 for army appropriations. The pictures on this page are, left to right: ICKES Jun*16 AUCHINLECK July 1 MARSHALL July 3 STALIN July 3 DENTZ July9 Douglas B-19, giant 82-ton bombing plane, successfully com- pleted test flight in California. OO 4,000 German and Rus- &0 sian tanks engaged in a gigantic battle in the Luck sec- tor of Russian-held Poland; nazi divisions neared Minsk; nazi- Kinnish forces launched a dual drive aimed at capturing Mur- mansk and Leningrad. 29 German tank divisions passed beyond Minsk. Pres. Roosevelt ordered the in- duction of 900,000 more men into U.S. land forces for the year beginning July 1, 1941. F.B.I, seized 29 suspects in the New York area on charges of espionage and conspiracy. Churchill appointed Lord Bea- verbrook minister of supply. Qft Minsk fell to twin German OU armies converging on the road leading from Borisov to Smolensk; a third nazi army based at Prxernysl pierced Ukraine defenses and captured Lwow. The Vichy gov't severed diplo- matic relations with U.S.S.R. JULY I German armies captured Riga; Berlin admitted stiff Russian resistance. Gen. Sir Archibald Wavell was relieved of the British middle east command and replaced by Gen. Sir Claude Auchinleck; Gen. Wavell took over the India command left by Gen. Auchin- leck. Soviet Russia asked the U.S. for help and offered to pay for war supplies, U.S. state depart- ment announced. Germany and six axis satellites recognized the Japanese-control- led puppet regime in Nanking. Gen. Hershey, selective service head, ordered the deferment of all prospective conscripts over 28 years of age j>ending final con- gressional action on a bill to that effect. .,:-. Federal Power commission ordered creation of a 17-state power pool in the southeast U.S. 2 German columns reputed- ly trapped two Russian armies in the Bialystok sector, capturing 160,000 prisoners; so- viet forces sped new defense lines along the Berezina river. The North American Avia- tion co. at Inglcwood, Calif., taken over by the army on June 9 after a strike closed the plant, was returned to the owners. 3 Soviet Premier Josef Sta- lin exhorted the Russian people to defend their soil by adopting a "scorched earth" policy. Russian and German panzer units fought fiercely for control of the Berezina river in the Bobruisk and Borisov sectors; Germans admitted bad weather and Russian resistance slowed the nazi drive; Finnish-German columns pushed toward Lenin- grad. Gen. Marshall, U.S. chief of staff, asked for immediate legis- lation to extend the military service of conscript sand national guardsmen and to permit use of U.S. armed forces beyond the western hemisphere. 4 Red army halted the nazi drive to cross the Berezina; Moscow said nazi casualties and prisoners since the beginning of the campaign totalled 700,000 troops; Berlin claimed the cap- ture of 200,000 Russians and put Russian casualties at 600,000. 5 Powerful soviet counter- attacks checked nazi ar- moured divisions in the Baltic and White Russian arenas of the Russian front; panzer divisions, far ahead of the nazi main lines, reached outpostsof the Stalin line at the Dnieper river, only 300 mi. from Moscow. R. A. F. u n i ts bombed t he F rench "invasion coast" and Rhenish industrial cities for the 21st con- secutive day. 6 A century-old border wrangle between Peru and Kcuador flared into clashes be- tween border patrols and rival air forces. Red army took the offensive in k the Lepel and Borisoy sectors; German panzer divisions were halted at the Dvina river; nazi- Rumanian army was repulsed north of Jassy. Southern coal operators sign- ed a collective bargaining con- tract with C.I.O. miners. Ten Italian generals and 5,000 Italian troops surrendered to British armies in Ethiopia. 7 Occupation of Iceland by U.S. naval and marine units announced to congress by Pres. Roosevelt. China would fight on 4 or 14 years to victory, Chungking For- eign Minister Quo Tai-chi de- clared in a broadcast commem- orating the fourth anniversary of the Sinojapanese war. 8 Nazi war machine was stalled on five principal sec- tors of the Russian front by heavy soviet counterattacks; Maxim Litvinov, former soviet foreign commissar, exhorted the British to hurl their full weight against the Germans in the west. U.S. occupation of Iceland was branded as "a stab in the back" by a German foreign office organ. 9 German mechanized units resumed their drive into U.S.S.R. Gen. Henri Dentz, commander of the Vichy forces in Syria, was authorized by the Petain govern- ment to ask the British for an armistice. in Pres. Roosevelt asked con- IU gress for additional defense appropriations of $4,770,065, 588. Iceland parliament approved by a 39 to 3 vote the Reykjavik government's agreement permit- ting U.S. armed forces to occupy the island. U.S. Navy warned shipping that mines had been laid in the ap- proaches to San Francisco bay. H Additional appropria- tions of $3,323,000,000 for the navy and the merchant marine were asked by Pres. Roosevelt. Belfast authorities confirmed the presence of U.S. technicians and labourers in northern Ire- land. 10 Breaching of the Stalin \L line at all decisive points was announced by the German high command; nazi forces took Vitebsk and crossed the Dvina river, menacing Smolensk. An armistice to end the war in Syria was concluded between the British and Free French forces and the Vichy command. 8 CALENDAR OF EVENTS.1941 JULY-Conf/m/td B Great Britain and soviet Russia signed a mutual aid pact; each pledged full war aid assistance to the other and agreed not to sign a peace pact except by mutual consent. German tank columns con- tinued to pound the Stalin line; Moscow admitted the loss of 250,000 men, but claimed the nazis had lost 1,000,000. H Thirteen German troop- ships, two destroyers and a tank-laden barge were sunk in the Baltic, Moscow announced. Japan closed the port of Kobe to foreigners for a 10-day period. B German planes blasted a path for tank columns mov- ing on Leningrad; a nazi force swept to within 100 mi. of the northern metropolis; Russian counterdrives pushed back Ger- man armies along the Dniej>er river. Thirty-three persons were in- dicted in a federal court in Brooklyn on charges of acting as German espionage agents. Churchill told commons that the soviet- British mutual aid pact meant that "the Russian people are now our allies." ID German high command Id claimed capture of Smo- lensk, 230 mi. from Moscow; Russian forces checked nazi units in the Bobruisk and Novograd Volynsk sectors; Russian air fleet bombed Ploesti oil fields in Rumania; rationing of foodstuffs and manufactured goods de- creed in Moscow. Cabinet of Prince Fumimaro Konoye in Tokyo resigned. 17 An estimated 9,000,000 If men were locked in battle along the entire Russian front. Pros. Roosevelt issued a black- list order freezing funds in the U.S. of 1,800 Latin-American firms having axis ties. Gen. Franco denounced the U.S. for refusing to ship wheat to Spain. Joe Dl Magglo of the New York Yankees established a modern baseball record by hitting safely in 56 consecutive games. The second draft lottery to determine the order in which an estimated 750,000 youths 21 years old would be drafted into the U.S. army was held in Washington. B Japanese Premier Prince Konoye formed a new cabi- net, the third headed by him. B Germans announced the "disintegration" of the Russian front, declaring that Leningrad, Moscow, Kiev and Odessa were threatened by nazi armies; Stalin assumed the post of defense commissar of the soviet union. Bolivia nipped a subversive plot laid to axis agents, declared a state of siege and demanded the ouster of tne German minister. The U.S. called upon private shippers to transfer an addition- al 100 oil tankers to Britain. 9fl Tne Brltlsn launched a L\i propaganda campaign called the "V for Victory* drive and designed to stir revolts in axis- occupied countries. a Pres. Roosevelt urged con- gress to speed legislation to keep trainees in the army for more than the statutory year limit. A nationwide drive to collect scrap aluminum for defense needs was launched in the U.S. 00 German-Finnish forces LL pressed drive on the Lenin- grad front; Moscow admitted nazi gains in the southern Ukraine sector. 00 Vichy yielded to Tokyo's demands for military bases in Indo-China, in return for which Japan agreed to "protect" that colony from British and Free French "domination. " O J Russian armies claimed to fc4 have stopped German drives in vicinities of Leningrad and Smolensk. OC Acting together to balk &u further Nipponese aggression in the far east, the U.S. and Britain froze all Japanese assets. 00 Pres. Roosevelt placed L\J armed forces of Philippines under U.S. command; Japan froze U.S. and British assets; U.S. defense agencies froze all stocks of raw silks; Great Britain gave notice of its intention to terminate British-Japanese-In- dian-Burman trade treaties, 01 All possible U.S. aid to LI U.S.S.R. was pledged by Harry Hopkins, lend-Iease co- ordinator, in a broadcast from London. OQ Dutch East Indies sus- LO pended oil agreement with Japan in a general order freezing all Japanese assets. MNazi forces in the Smo- lensk area were dislodged by counterattacking Russian units, the red army claimed. Of) Pres. Roosevelt asked con- Oil gress for authority to estab- lish ceilings on living costs to avert inflation. U.S.S.R. and Polish govern- ment*! n -exile signed agree- ment ending state of war between the two countries; U.S.S.R. agreed to recognize the Polish frontiers prior to the soviet-nazi pact of Sept. 1939. Washington protested to Tok- yo over the bombing of an American gunboat, "Tutuila," at Chungking, China. 01 Japan's prompt apology 01 for the bombing of the "Tutuila" was accepted by the U.S. Pres. Roosevelt created an economic defense board and named Vice- President Henry Wallace to head the new agency. The R.A.F., in the first direct military support given by Brit- ain to Russia, attacked the Finnish port of Petsamo and the nazi-held port of Kirkenes in Norway. AUGUST I Pres. Roosevelt banned ex- port of aviation gasoline and oil to all points outside the western hemisphere, excepting the British empire and <4 countries resisting aggression.*' OPM ordered Immediate stoppage of all raw silk proces- sing by nondefense industries. ZUndersec'y of State Welles assailed Vichy's cession of Indo-China bases to Tokyo. U.S. ordered rationing of ray- on yarn to avert complete dis- location of silk mills employing some 175,000 workers. 3 Voluntary curfew on gaso- line sales from 7 p.m. to 7 a.m. went into effect in 13 east- ern states. 4 Tax bill of $3,206,200,000 was voted, 369 to 40, by the U.S. house of representatives. 5 Germans claimed to have widened the Smolensk gap in their drive on Moscow; Russians reported the halting of twin nazi drives on Kiev. 6 German high command claimed capture of 895,000 prisoners in the Russian cam- paign and estimated soviet cas- ualties at 3,000,000 dead and wounded. 16,000 workers went on strike at shipyard in Kearny, N.J., halting work on defense con- tracts totalling about $450,- 000,000. 7 Bill to extend army serv- ice to 30 months passed in U.S. senate by 45 to 30 vote. Soviet Information bureau put German casualties since the beginning of the Russian cam- paign at 1, 500,000, whileestimat- mg Russian losses at 600,000. 8 Twenty-five soviet divi- sions were trapped in a nazi pincer movement in the Ukraine, according to a German high command claim; Moscow ad- mitted withdrawal of troops in the Ukraine area and said Berlin was twice raided by the red air forcS; Vichy military observers estimated nazi losses at 1,500,000 and Russian losses at 2,000,000 in the first 48 days of warfare on the Russian front. 9 Germans hurled large masses of men and material in a new attack on all three major fronts of the Russian theatre of war. Steel was placed under full OPM control. Russian armies defending the Odessa and Krivoi Rog sectors in the Ukraine area were reported perilled by a German 4 'pocket" movement. Pres. Roosevelt ordered the federal reserve board to place a curb on instalment-credit pur- chasing. GBill extending army serv- ice to 30 months was ap- proved by single vote in house of representatives; final ballot was 203 to 202. Marshal Retain pledged his Vichy regime to collaboration with Adolf Hitler's "new order." German panzer divisions, reached the Black sea coast near Odessa and Nikolayev. IQ R.A.F. bombers, in a wide Iv sweep over Germany, set fires in Berlin and blasted the Krupp works in Essen. Mln a historic meeting aboard a British battleship "somewhere in the Atlantic, Pres. Roosevelt and Prime Min- ister Churchill agreed on an eight-point declaration of war and peace aims and pledged themselves to the common goal of "destroying nazi tyranny. German armies captured Kri- voi Rog in the southern Ukraine; Russians admitted the loss of Pervomaisk and Kir6vo, key towns in the defense of Odessa. 15 300 big British bombers blasted three German cities. Leon Henderson, OPACS ad- ministrator, ordered a temporary 10% cut in gasoline deliveries to retailers in 17 eastern states. B Soviet Premier Stalin ac- cepted a proposal submitted by Pres. Roosevelt and Prime Minister Churchill to receive "high American and British of- ficials 1 / in Moscow to discuss long-term plans to fight the axis. CALENDAR OF EVENTS*1941 AUGUST- Continued The Germans announced twin drive on Leningrad and new offen- sive in the central sector. |7 The fall of Nikolayev, II Black sea naval base, was admitted in Moscow. Great Britain and the soviet union jointly warned Iran to curb infiltration of nazi "tour- ists" and technicians. Anglo-soviet trade treaty was signed, under which London would lend Moscow 10,000,000 to facilitate commerce exchanges. Ferrying of oombat planes to British near east via Brazil and Africa announced by Pres. Roose- velt. Russian troops withdrew from Kingisepp, 70 mi. southwest of Leningrad, Moscow commun- iqu said. A number of French deputies and senators were placed under "administrative custody" be- cause of their outspoken criticism of the P6tain regime. U.S. Ambassador Joseph Grew protested against Japan's refusal to allow the departure of a group of U.S. citizens stranded in Japan. The U.S. ordered a census of all foreign-owned property. BU.S. war department measure to release drafted men and national guardsmen from active duty after 14 to 18 months of service wasannounced. The German army hammered Russian forces falling back to- ward Leningrad; the Germans laid siege to Odessa and claimed victories in salients near the Dnieper river. M Marshal Vproshllov ap- pealed to citizens of Lenin- grad to defend the city to the death; Marshal Budenny, com- mander of the Russian Ukraine armies, was reported to have blown up the huge Dnieper dam. 01 German troops took the L\ cities of Narwa, Kingisepp and Novgorod in their drive on Leningrad; Russians admitted the fall of Gomel in the Kiev sec- tor, while the nazis claimed cap- ture of Kherson, a river port on the lower Dnieper. Two alleged communists were executed and scores were ar- rested in Paris. OPM and OPACS ordered a 26.6% cut in passenger motor car production from Aug. to Dec. 1941. 00 Finnish troops announced LL the capture of Kaekisalmi, 75 mi. north of Leningrad; Sov- iets evacuated Nikopol on the Dnieper's west bank, Moscow said. German authorities in Paris warned that they would shoot French hostages if attacks on Germans in the city continued. 00 The U.S. took over the &U Federal Shipbuilding and Dry Dock co. in Kearny, N.J., where construction of naval and merchant ships had been halted by a strike. Red army forces launched counterattack in Gomel sector. Marshal Retain established and empowered military courts in un- occupied areas to impose death sentences in cases of terrorism and sabotage. 01 Prime Minister Church- fc 1 ! Ill told Japan that Britain would range itself on the side of the U.S. in the event of far eastern trouble. Twenty-five merchant ships in a British convoy were sunk by nazi U-boats and surface craft, Berlin said. OC Russian and British u troops simultaneously marched into Iran. Moscow admitted the evacua- tion of Novgorod ; a heavy battle raged in the Dnieper river area. Vichy reported 20,000 German troops were assigned to help French police crush agitation rampant in Paris and its suburbs. 9R U.S.S.R. warned Japan &U that any effort to interfere with Russo- American - trade in the far east would be considered an unfriendly act. British troops occupied vital oil areas in southern Iran while Rus- sian forces to the north marched into Tabriz. Hitler's armies captured Dne- propetrovsk in the Ukraine. 01 German forces crossed the L I Dnieper river and seized Zaporozhe, Berlin reported. 00 In an effort to speed up LQ arms production, Pres. Roosevelt created a seven-man Supply Priorities and Allocations board, headed by Vice- President Wallace with Donald M, Nelson as executive director. Moscow confirmed destruction of the huge Dnieper river dam. New Iran government ended resistance to the invasion of soviet and British troops. In swift reprisals for the wave of sabotage sweeping France, the Vichy gov't had three men exe- cuted on the guillotine. OQ Adolf Hitler and Ben I to 19 Mussolini held a 5-day par- ley on the Russian front. German land, sea and air forces took Tallinn, capital of Estonia, after bitter nghting, Berlin announced. U.S. war department an- nounced plans to release 200,000 men from army service by Dec. 10, 1941 with special considera- tion given to dependency cases, conscripts and national guards- men over 28 and enlisted men with three years of duty. W. Averell Harriman, U.S. minister to London, was ap- pointed by Pres. . Roosevelt to head the U. S. delegation to the Anglo- American- Russian confer- ence in Moscow. French firing squads in Paris shot 8 men on charges of espio- nage and terrorism. M Finns captured Viborg, taken by the Russians after the Russo- Finnish war of 1939- 40. 0| Soviet forces launched 01 heavy counterassaults against nazi positions in the cen- tral sector and along the Dnieper river in the Ukraine. SEPTEMBER I Pres. Roosevelt called for more energy to defeat Hit- ler's "insane violence" and de- clared he could not betray the cause of freedom with a nego- tiated peace. Mexican President Avila Ca- macho pledged Mexican armed forces to western hemisphere de- fense, but declared that Mexico desired to stay out of the war. Vichy persuaded German au- thorities in Paris to abandon plans for mass execution of Jew- ish hostages, according to Fer- nand de Brinon, Vichy's envoy to Paris. 2 Berlin reported nazi troops entered the suburb of Kras- noeSelo, only 20 mi. from Lenin- grad. Mussolini and Hitler decided at their Russian front meeting to unite all Europe into a single axis-dominated state based on "harmonious co-operation of all European peoples," // Popolo d' Italia, Duce's newspaper, an- nounced. 3 German resistance on a 30-mi. front in the Smolensk area crumbled under lashing Russian attack, Moscow re- ported; German armies in Ukraine drove toward Kharkov. Japanese Premier Konoye warned that Nippon faced grav- est crisis in history and appealed to his countrymen for unity. U.S. shipyards, in speedup of operations, would turn out 130 to 134 ships in 1941, according to figures made public by Adm. Land, chairman of maritime commission. 4 Nazi U-boat attacked U.S. destroyer "Greer," which wasenroute to Iceland with mail; the "Greer" counterattacked with depth charges. U.S. plane production in Aug- ust 1941 reached a record high of 1,854, OPM announced. Pres. Roosevelt authorized use of lencl-lease funds "to supply Polish troops in Canada with war equipment and supplies. U.S. state department sanc- tioned sale of oil to Spain. 5 Long-range German artil- lery shelled Leningrad; Mos- cow said Russian troops counter- attacked in the Leningrad area. U.S. senate adopted 1941 reve- nue bill, calling for additional $3,583,900,000 in taxes, by a 67 to 5 vote. British submarines torpedoed five Italian vessels, including 23,635-ton liner "Duilio" and a 10,000-ton cruiser, in Straits of Messina. 6 Berlin admitted that Ger- man submarine fired at U.S. destroyer "Greer," but declared "Greer" fired first; U.S. navy dep't denied charge. Russian defenders of Lenin- grad hurled nazi columns back from city in furious battle; Mos- cow reported new nazi thrusts at Kiev were repulsed and said soviet armies on lower Dnieper river still held city of Zaporozhe. 7 Red army forces gave ground slightly before nazi troops pressing toward Lenin- grad. Moscow ordered removal of Vol- ga Germans to Siberia in move to forestall possible sabotage. Martin Dies accused Leon Hen- derson and four aides of com- munist affiliations; Henderson denied charge. Robert L. Rigqs won U.S. men's singles title ana Mrs. Sarah Pal- frey Cooke won the women's singles. U.S. freighter, "Steel Sea- farer, 11 was bombed by an un- identified plane in Red sea. 8 British war office announ- ced that an Allied force landed on Spitsbergen and de- stroyed coal mines and a radio station. 10 CALENDAR OF EVENTS*1941 SEPTEMBER -Confmued German motorized units took Schlusselburg and reached the Neva river in the drive to ring Leningrad, Hitler's headquar- ters announced; Germans ad- mitted fierce Russian resistance west of besieged city. German authorities in Paris arrested 100 leading French Jews. Heavy R.A.F. raid on Berlin in which 27 persons were killed was branded "terroristic" and "crim- inal assault" by German press. 9 Marshal Timoshenko's red army troops tore 15-ini. gap in nazi central front posi- tions and recaptured Elnya. U.S. state department an- nounced that the "Sessa," a U.S.-owned freighter under Pan- amanian registry, had been tor- pedoed and sunk Aug. 17, 300 mi. southwest of Iceland. U.S. and Britain reached trade agreement under which latter agreed to cut drastically its ex- port trade to remove suspicion that Britain had been using lend- lease materials to compete un- fairly against the U.S. Sen. Nye, in senate movie probe, charged that a small group of motion picture producers "f)orn abroad" had been injecting pro- war propaganda into films. W Threaten ing unrest among Norwegian workers led nazi authorities to place Oslo area under martial law. Red army troops pursued re- treating German units in the Gomel and Smolensk sectors. HPres. Roosevelt ordered U. S. navy to shoot first if axis raiders entered American defense zones; he said U.S. warships and planes would protect ships of every flag engaged in commerce in U.S. sea zones and said there would be no "shooting war" un- less Germany continued to seek it. The "Montana, 11 U.S.-owned freighter, was torpedoed in wat- ers 260 mi. southwest of Iceland. Emperor Hirohito was placed in direct command of a new Jap- anese general defense headquar- ters. . f Prime Minister Churchill de- fended his minister of aircraft production, J. T. C. Moore-Bra- bazon, against charges that lat- ter was cool to British efforts to aid Russia. Soviet Foreign Commissar Molotpv formally charged that Bulgaria was serving as axis base. Charles A. Lindbergh charged at an America First rally in Des Moines that "the three most important groups which have been pressing the U.S. toward war are the British, Jewish and the Roosevelt administration." 10 Authorized German \L spokesman asserted that President Roosevelt's "shoot first" order would compel the reich to take fitting counter- measures. German high command an- nounced that 22 ships in a con- voy of 40 had been sunk in Atlantic. Russian high command an- nounced withdrawal of red army troops from Chernigov, key city midway between Kiev and Go- mel; Stalin promoted Generals Ivan S. Koncv and Andrei Yeremenko to the rank of colonel general. German authorities made mass arrests in Norway to foil possible revolt by 350,000 trade unionists, Swedish reports said. Leon Henderson froze anthra- cite coal prices. 10 Russians claimed Marshal 10 Semyon Timoshenko's cen- tral front armies hurled back German thrust at Bryansk, 220 mi. southwest of Moscow; two nazi tank corps commanded by Col. Gen. Heinz Guderian were reported routed. MAn R.A.F. wing, complete with ground crews and ma- teriel, arrived in U.S.S.R., Brit- ish air ministry announced. Finnish hopes for early peace were voiced by Vaino Tanner, Finnish trade and communica- tions minister. Four time bombs exploded in Zagreb's central telephone ex- change, crippling the city's tele- phone system and injuring a German major and 13 others. 1C Sec'y of Navy Knox told IJ American Legion conven- tion in Milwaukee that, begin- ning Sept. 16, the U.S. navy would start to protect ships carrying lend-lease aid between the American continent and Iceland. President Roosevelt's report to congress on lend-lease aid dis- closed that $6,281,237,421 had been allocated for aid and that $388,912,115 of this amount had been spent up to Aug. 31. OPM ordered Dec., 1941 pas- senger motor car production cut to 48.4% below production of Dec. 1940. Argentine Chamber of Depu- ties approved a resolution cen- suring German Ambassador Bar- on fcdrnund von Thermann for abusing his diplomatic privileges. Red and blue armies clashed as U.S. war games, involving more than 400,000 troops, opened in Louisiana, Texas and Mississippi. ID Reza Shah Pahlevi of U Iran abdicated because of "failing health"; his son, 21- year-old Mohammed Re/a Pah- levi, succeeded to throne of Iran. Pres. Roosevelt made Edward R. Stettinius Jr. his special aid and gave him broad powers to speed arms shipments to Britain and her allies. U.S. navy dept. announced that all contracts for the 2,831 ships needed for two-ocean fleet had been awarded. U.S. and Norwegian govern- ment-in-exile disclosed plans to use additional 50 to 150 mer- chantmen in transatlantic con- voy service under U.S. navy protection. , German military authorities announced execution of 10 more hostages in Paris; French "gun- men," ignoring reprisals, shot at two nazi soldiers. II German armies widened 1 1 their bridgehead on east bank of Dnieper. RFC contracted for purchase of $100,000,000 in soviet metal ores in return for Russian pur- chases of U.S. goods. U.S. senate approved new tax bill of $3,553,400,000 and sent it to Pres. Roosevelt for signature. Bulgaria asked Turkey to open Straits of Dardanelles to 13 warships. American Legion in annual convention at Milwaukee adopt- ed resolution backing Roose- velt's foreign policy and approv- ing use of U.S. forces on foreign soil if war became unavoidable. 10 Pres. Roosevelt asked con- 10 gress for new appropriation of $5,985,000,000 under lend- lease program. Stalin ordered conscription of all civilian males in U.S.S.R. between 16 and 50 not already in military service, for training, after working hours, in use of war weapons. Lynn U. Stambaugh was named national commander of American Legion. IQ Gen. Heinrich von Iv Stuelpnagcl, German mil- itary commander for occupied France, clamped a rigid curfew on Paris. "Pink Star, 1 ' U.S.-owned freighter, flying under Panama- nian flag, was sunk between Greenland and Iceland. German panzer spearhead entered Kiev; nazi drive 200 mi. south captured Poltava. *$ In first announcement of German losses in Russian war, nazi high command reported total casualties of 402,865 dead, wounded and missing, in first 71 days of fighting. Axis -dominated Croat gov- ernment executed 50 "com- munists and Jews" charged with having "instigated" bomb explo- sions in central telephone ex- change of Zagreb. Berlin reported Germar troops were mopping u{ Kiev and pocket to east when 200,000 soviet soldiers were saic to be trapped; Moscow esti mated nazis lost 150,000 men ii Kiev battle. Pres. Roosevelt signed new taj_ bill of $3,553,400,000. ; Rome dispatches said a fleet of Italian mosquito boats raided Gibraltar harbour and sank three British supply ships. The pictures on this page are, left to right: HENDERSON Aug. 15 NELSON Aug. 28 WALLACE Aug. 28 LAND Sept. 3 TIMOSHENKO Sopt. 13 CALENDAR OF EVENTS1941 11 SEPTEMBER Continued a Nazi panzer divisions breached Russian lines and reached Sea of Azov, cutting off Crimea; Berlin reported Mar- shal Budenny's force of 150,000 men trapped east of Kiev faced total annihilation. OO Japan ordered new re- LL ductlons in production of non-military steel and iron goods. OQ Pres. Roosevelt disclosed U.S. plan to arm merchant ships. U.S. should send Britain $1,000,000,000 in food by Feb. 1942 to prevent her defeat, Sec'y of Agriculture Wickard told house appropriations com- mittee. Sec'y of Navy Knox urged re- peal of neutrality act in speech at launching of new 35,000-ton battleship "Massachusetts." Argentine troops occupied two vital airdromes in move to foil plot of young aviation officers laid to nazi inspiration. Nine Mexicans were slain when soldiers guarding home of Pres. Avila Camacho fired into 1,700 workers protesting against labour conditions in munitions plants. Federal Reserve board ordered increase of one-seventh in re- serve requirements of member banks. Formation In London of French National council to serve as a provisional government was announced by FYee French Leader Gen. Charles de Gaulle. M Eleven allied govern- ments pledged adherence to Roosevelt-Churchill "Atlan- tic Charter" and mapped plans to set up food pool to rehabili- tate Europe during postwar period. v > v> OC U. S. S. R. hurled great Lu masses of troops at nazi concentrations east of Dvina river 300 mi. below Leningrad. The pictures on this page are, left to right: BUDENNY Sopt, 21 HEYDRICH Spt. 27 BOCK Oct. 7 RUNDSTEDT Oct. 7 &RIAS Oct. 9 Widespread activities of Ser- bian guerrillas led Rome to dispatch Italian troops to re- occupy Croatian demilitarized zone. 0"7 Rome- Berlin -Tokyo axis L I aimed to create "new order" for world, Japanese Foreign Min- ister Teijiro Toyoda said in speech on first anniversary of Japan's adherence to tripartite pact. Capture of 665,000 Russians in Kiev battle claimed by nazi high command. Nazi stuka planes strafed Ser- bian guerrillas while bombers and big guns razed the town of Uzice, centre of rebellion. Italy announced drastic cut in bread rations to seven oz. daily per person. "I.C. White," 7,052-ton U.S.- owned tanker under Panamanian registry, torpedoed and sunk in south Atlantic. Fourteen U.S. merchantmen were launched in nationwide "liberty fleet day" celebration. Reinhard Heydrich, nazi chief of security police, named reich protector of Bohemia- Mora via. OQ Nazis arrested Czech Prc- 1.0 mier Gen. Alois Elias and declared state of emergency in six sections of Bohemia- Moravia. Strike of 17,000 C.I.O. steel workers at three big plants in Birmingham area ended when Gov. Dixon withdrew home guardsmen. OQ Nazi firing squads shot &U three Czech generals and 21 other "conspirators" for an at- tempted plot to restore Czech independence. ..-.'-.. R.A.F. battered Turin, Genoa, Spezia and Milan. Joe Louis knocked out Lou Nova in 6th of scheduled 15- round fight. W. Averell Harriman, head of U.S. mission to Moscow, pledged fullest U.S. support to IJ.S.S.R. at opening of Anglo- U.S. -Soviet parleys in soviet capital. M Prime Minister Churchill reported British gains in military strength but warned that Germany still held initia- tive in all military fields except air. Freedom of worship as well as right to propagandize against it guaranteed by constitution of U.S.S.R., as by the U.S. consti- tution, said President Roosevelt in press conference. OCTOBER I Delayed dispatch from Reykjavik announced land- ing of new force of U.S. army units in Iceland under command of Maj. Gen. Charles H. Bone- steel. New U.S. excise tax of 10% on retail goods went into effect; many luxury products were hit by new levy. U.S. and Britain should police world for at least 100 years after defeat of axis to ensure peace en- forcement, Sec'y of Navy Knox said in address before American Bar association. Execution of Czech premier Elias was reported but later denied. U.S. and British missions agreed to fill all soviet needs for war supplies, at close of three- power parley in Moscow. Chinese military dispatches said Japanese armies had retreat- ed in disorder from Changsha. 2 Intensive drive against Moscow along a 3 75 -mi. front launched by German armies. German bombers blasted five English towns in first big raids over Britain since beginning of Russian campaign. Fifty-seven Czechs were exe- cuted by nazis for terrorist or treasonous activities. > Sec'y of Treasury Morgen- thau urged U.S. bankers to de- fer loans for nondefense proj- ects. 3 Mayor Otakar Klapka and a number of city council members of Prague were exe- cuted by nazis for alleged con- spiracy against German protec- torate. German armies had broken backbone of Russian resistance, Hitler told German people. British authorities called last- minute halt to scheduled ex- change of some 3,000 German and British war prisoners. Australian Prime Minister Arthur W. Fadden's govern- ment fell after debate on budg- et; John Curt in, labourite, ac- cepted commission to form new government. Charles A. Lindbergh told America First rally in Ft. Wayne that Pres. Roosevelt was leading U.S. along road which might in- volve suspension of congressional elections in 1942. Pres. Roosevelt revealed that he had been pressing U.S. rep- resentatives in Moscow to prod U.S.S.R. to permit freedom of religious worship. Six Jewish synagogues were blown up in Paris; Marshal Petain commuted death sentence of Paul Colette, young French- man who shot Pierre Laval and Marcel Deat, to life imprison- ment. Pope Pius XII denounced steri- lization, racial marriage laws and "mania for divorce." 4 Soviet troops made 18-mi. advance in the Ukraine sec tor, Moscow reported. Norwegians were warned by Nazi Commissioner Josef Ter- bovcn to accept Maj. Quisling's "new order" or be annexed to reich. 5 Soviet spokesman put Ger- man losses at 3,000,000 dead, wounded and missing; and Rus- sian losses at 230,000 killed, 720,000 wounded and 178,000 missing. 6 Federal court In New York city cleared Aluminum Com- pany of America of monopoly charges, Panama's cabinet forbade arming of ships flying Panama- nian flag. New York Yankees beat Brook- lyn Dodgers, four games to one, to win 1941 baseball world series. 7 German Field Marshal Fedor von Bock's forces drove to within 130 mi. of Mos- cow; Field Marshal Karl von Rundstcdt's armies seized ports of Mariupol and Berdiansk on Sea of Azov. Finnish government rebuffed Britain's demand to cease war on U.S.S.R. 8 Recapture of Ichang in Hupeh province by Chinese admitted by Japs in Shanghai. 12 CALENDAR OF EVENTS.1941 OCTOBER-Conf/m/oo! Ruffians admitted loff of Orel. FBI agents arrested George S. Vie reck on charges of with- holding information from state dep't concerning his activities as an agent for Germany. 9Pres. Roosevelt asked eon* gress for immediate author- ity to arm U.S. merchantmen. Arnulfo Arias, who banned arming of Panama merchant ships, was ousted as president of Panama; cabinet selected Ricar- do Adolfo de la Guardia as his successor. SPAB banned use of defense materials for public or private construction not vital to de- fense or public health. m German panzer divisions reached point 105 mi. south of Moscow. Britlfh War office disclosed that shock troops known as "commandos" were being drilled for "invasion manoeuvres." Plans to build up health of 200,000 youths rejected from military service because of physi- cal or mental ailments were an- nounced by Pres. Roosevelt. British shipment of arms and munitions to U.S.S.R. under "lend-leasc plan" was revealed by Lord Beaverbrook. HU.S. naval vessel discov- ered and "disposed of" Ger- man radio station operating in Greenland, navy dep't an- nounced. Russian women and children were evacuated from Moscow as nazi armies pushed closer to capital. 10 Germans advanced In \L Vyazma sector; red army admitted that Germans had taken Bryansk. 10 German troops occupied IV Vyazma, 130 mi. west of Moscow. German forces reached Mofhaifk and Kalinin 14 areas. BNazI armies captured Kalinin, 100 mi. northwest of Moscow. George E. Browne, indicted president of Stage Employees and Motion Picture Operators unions, was replaced as llth vice president of A.F. -of L. at latter s convention in Seattle; convention also instructed all A.F. of L. central' bodies to re- fuse seating to any union dele- gate convicted of "serious wrong- doing." Japanese Premier Fuml- maro Konoye's cabinet resigned after ministers failed to agree on national policy. Rumanian troops captured Odessa after two-month siege; nazis reported capture of Ka- luga. U.S. -owned freighter, "Bold Venture," flying under Panama flag, was sunk 500 mi. south of Iceland. Rome dispatches said Vladimir Matchek, former Croat peasant leader, had been placed under police surveillance. 17 U.S.S. "Kearny," 1,630- II ton destroyer, was torpe- doed and damaged while on patrol duty 350 mi. southwest of Greenland. U.S. navy dep't ordered U.S. merchant ships in Asiatic waters to put into friendly ports. Bill amending neutrality act to permit arming of U.S. mer- chantmen was passed in house of representatives by vote of 259 to 138. U.S. Ambassador Laurence A. Stein hardt and other envoys to U.S.S.R. left Moscow. Recapture of Orel reported in Russian broadcast. B Strong Ruffian counter- attacks blocked nazi thrusts in Kalinin and Moshaisk sectors. Lt. Gen. Hldekl Tojo formed new Japanese cabinet and took over portfolios of prime minis- try, war and home ministries; Shigenori Togo was made for- eign minister. Hundreds of Yugoslav rebels were executed in an effort to stamp out the revolt of Chctniks, Serb patriots. ^ Canada'f decision to control wages and prices was an- nounced by Prime Minister W. L. Mackenzie King. BU.S. navy dep't said sub- marine that torpedoed "Kearny" was "undoubtedly German"; damaged destroyer reached port with 11 missing and 10 injured. U.S. merchant thlp"Lehlgh f> sunk in south Atlantic by sub- marine. Moscow and adjoining areas were placed under state of siege. Germans captured port of Taganrog in Donetz basin. Names of 1,124 alleged com- munists or "subversive affili- ates" on federal pay rolls were sent to Attorney-Gen. Biddle by Chairman Martin Dies of Un- American Activities committee. M Moscow diplomatic corps reached Kuibyshev (Sa- mara), temporary headquarters for foreign envoys in soviet union. Sec'yofTreafuryMorgenthau disclosed U.S. had advanced $30,000,000 to soviet union against promise of gold delivery. Panama's new government revoked ban on arming mer- chant ships. Sec'y of State Hull denounced torpedoing of destroyer "Kearny"; Hitler's newspaper Voelkischer Beobachter asserted U.S. had "staged" "Kearny" incident. a Nazis executed 50 French hostages in Nantes, France, in reprisal for slaying of German officer by two unidentified civil- ians; German military command- er warned unless slayers were apprehended by midnight Oct. 22, 50 more would be executed. Russians declared all Ger- man drives on Moscow had been stopped; Berlin announced capture of Stalino, and occupa- tion of Dagoe island at mouth of Gulf of Finland. William Fox, former movie producer, was sentenced to year and day in federal penitentiary and fined $3,000 on charge of conspiracy to obstruct justice. OO Germans seized 100 more LL French hostages after slaying of nazi major in Bor- deaux. Rumania denounced Vienna pact in effort to regain part of Transylvania surrendered to Hungary in Aug. 1940. Gen. Robert E. Wood, acting chairman of America First com- mittee, appealed to Pres. Roose- velt to submit question of war or peace to vote of congress. Zagreb newspaper disclosed that nazis had executed 200 "Jews and communists" as re- prisal for attack on two German soldiers in Belgrade Oct. 17. 00 Gregory K. Zhukov, chief &v of soviet general staff, took over command of central zone Operations following shakeup of red army command; Marshal Timoshenko was shifted to south- ern front while Marshals Buden- ny and Voroshilov were charged with formation of new Russian armies. German authorities ordered execution of 100 French host- ages in reprisal for slaying of nazi commander of Nantes. Petroleum Coordinator lokes asked OPM to lift ban on gasoline sales on U.S. east coast U.S. war dep't announced plans to expand air force combat groups from 54 to 84 and to in- crease air force personnel to 400,000 by June 30, 1942. 04 Fifty French hostages Lr\ were shot by Germans in re- taliation for slaying of nazi offi- cer in Bordeaux. Arthur Starnef, parachutist, dropped 29,300 ft. before open- ing his 'chute in record free fall from plane over Chicago. OC German troopf captured J Kharkov and launched new drive against Moscow. 9ft Fifty -three thousand C. fcU I.O. mlpers in captive coal pits of big steel corporations stopped work after John L. Lewis rejected Pres. Roosevelt's appeal to halt strike. SPAB Director Donald M. Nelson barred use of defense metals for trimmings on auto- mobiles. 27 Heavy rains on Moscow front bogged nazi armies. 00 Sen. Taft of Ohio 2.0 charged that Pres. Roose- velt had "tricked 11 U.S. onto road to war. Mussolini, in speech marking 20th year of fascism, boasted that "coalition of bolshevism and its European and American allies" would be shattered by axis. M Charles Fahy was named U.S. solicitor general by Pres. Roosevelt. ASCAP music became avail- able to NBC and CBS radio net- works as organization of compos- ers signed agreement with radio companies ending dispute over royalties that began Jan. 1. MPres. Roosevelt ordered U.S. troops to take over Air Associates plant in Bendix, N.J., after nonstriking workers twice forced ouster of reinstated C.I.O. workers. John L. Lewis called off captive mine coal strike until Nov. 15. 1 ,1 90-ton U .S.dectroyer' ' Reu- ben Jamef " was torpedoed and sunk while on convoy duty west of Iceland; 76 of crew missing. 01 German troops pierced ill outer* defenses of Tula. U.S. naval tanker "Salinas/ 1 16,800 tons, was torpedoed with* out warning southwest of Ice- land ; no casualties were reported and vessel proceeded to port un- der own power. Marshal Borla Shapoehnlkov was renamed chief of staff of red army. CALENDAR OF EVENTS. 1941 13 NOVEMBER I Reich formally charged U.S. with attacking Germany in naval incidents involving U.b. destroyers "Greer" and "Kearny," Pros. Roosevelt conferred with Canadian Prime Min- ister Mackenzie King on con- certed program to speed aid to U.S.S.R. German troops advanced in Kalinin area, 95 mi. northwest of Moscow; Russians admitted nazi spearheads had entered Tula. 2 Pros. Roosevelt placed entire coast guard under navy dep't. Gen. Sir Archibald Wavell reached Singapore. Germans captured Simfero- pol, Crimean capital. 3 Sec'y Hull indicated at press conference that U.S. had been exerting pressure on Finland to end war with U.S.S.R. Reich rejected U.S. request for compensation of $2,%7,092 for torpedoing of U.S. freighter "Robin Moor" in south Atlantic May 21, Sec'y Hull revealed. 4Fiorello La Guardia was re- elected mayor of New York city, polling 1,187,978 votes to 1,050,397 for his opponent, Wil- liam O'Dwyer, democrat. British warships seized six vessels in Vichy convoy trying to run contraband for Germans in south Atlantic, London ad- miralty reported. Nazi divisions captured The- odosia, Crimean port near Kerch. Women hurled eggs and to- matoes at British ambassador Lord Halifax in Detroit. 5 Japanese goy't announced that veteran diplomat Saburo Kurusu was enroute to Washing- ton on mission to establish basis for peace in Pacific areas. 6 U.S. loan of $1 ,000,000,000 in lend-lease aid to U.S.S.R. was arranged through exchange of letters between Roosevelt and Stalin, state dep't revealed. Soviet government announced appointment of Maxim Litvinov to succeed Cpnstantine Ouman- sky as Russian ambassador to Washington. Premier Stalin urged creation of second front and forecast "in- evitable doom" of Hitler in broadcast on 24th anniversary of October revolution; he put Ger- man war casualties at 4,500,000 and Russian losses at 1,748,000. Nazi propaganda minister Qoebbels warned Germans they would face "inferno" if reicn lost war. George Browne and Willie Bi- off, who won control of A.F. of L. stage union, were found guilty by federal court in New York city of violating anti-racketeer- ing statute. U.S. cruiser seized "Odenwald," axis raider disguised as U.S. merchant ship, in Atlantic equa- torial waters,* navy announced. 7 After 11 days of bitter de- bate, U.S. senate voted 50 to 37 to amend Neutrality act to permit arming of U.S. merchant- men and entrance of U.S. ships into war /ones. Russians launched counter- offensive from Kalinin to Volo- kolamsk. 8 German warships would fire on U.S. vessels only if attacked, Adolf Hitler declared in speech marking 18th year of Munich beorhall putsch. 9 Destruction of 11 Italian merchantmen in Mediter- ranean by British naval squad- ron was announced by admiralty in London. Nazi authorities announced 20 Czechs had been executed for at- tempting to disrupt Vienna's food supply organization. m Churchill pledged U.S. that Britain would declare war on Japan "within the hour" if Japan and U.S. should go to National Mediation Defense board rejected C.I.O. demand for closed shop in captive coal mines. U.S. navy department ordered commandant at San Diego area to proceed with work on naval construction despite strike of building trade workers. Finland rejected U.S. re- quest to stop fighting against U.S.S.R. Manuel Quezon was re-elected president of the Philippines by estimated 7-to-l margin over his nearest opponent. K Executives of "Big Five" operating railroad brother- hoods set Dec. 7 as date of scheduled strike. Churchill told house of com- mons Battle of Atlantic was turning in Britain's favour. B House of representatives voted 212 to 194 to amend Neutrality act. Counterattacking Russian troops made new gains in Tula sector; nazi forces reported cap- t urine coast positions south of Kerch in Crimea. M"Ark Royal," 22,500-ton British aircraft carrier, was torpedoed and sunk by axis sub- marine about 25 mi. east of Gibraltar. U.S. marines were ordered by Pres, Roosevelt to leave garri- sons in Shanghai, Peiping and Tientsin. BU.M.W. A. officials orclmd 53,000 miners in captive coal pits to cease work at midnight. If* C.I.O. national executive 10 board voted unanimously to back John L. Lewis and Unit- ed Mine Workers' Union in strike for union shop in captive coal pits. British Labour Minister Er- nest Be vin declared 1,000,000 married women were needed for munitions work. 11 Japanese Premier Hideki 1 1 Tpjo set as terms for peace in Pacific; hands off China, lift- ing of economic blockade against Japan and end of military en- circlement. Pres. Roosevelt and Saburo Kurusu, special Japanese en- voy, conferred on Pacific crisis. Germans claimed capture of Kerch, key city in Crimea. Hitler placed conquered areas of U.S.S.R. under civil admin- istration of Alfred Rosenberg, chief nazi ideologist. Some 53,000 miners in captive pits stopped work following col- lapse oi negotiations. Pres. Roosevelt asked congress for $7,082,419,046 in supplemen- tal appropriations for armed forces and for defense housing. Pres. Roosevelt signed law re- pealing Neutrality act. U British forces launched a surprise sea, air and land offensive into Libya, advancing 50 mi. in first 24 hr. ; Lt. Gen. Sir Alan Gordon Cunningham led land forces, while his brother, Adm. Sir Arthur Browne Cun- ningham, commanded navy units, C.I.O., in its fourth constitu- tional convention, unanimously endorsed foreign policy of Pres. Roosevelt. Lt. Gen. Sir Alan Brooke was named to succeed Gen. Sir John G. Dill as chief of British imperi- al general staff; Lt. Gen. Bernard C Paget was appointed com- mander in chief of home forces, the post vacated by Gen. Brooke. Japan's special emissary Sa- buro Kurusu and Ambassador Kichisaburo Nomura asked To- kyo for further instructions after three-hour parley with Sec'y Hull. Russians admitted situation was "grave" in Crimea as red army forces withdrew from Kerch. U.S. and Mexico reached ac- cord under which Washington agreed to stabilize peso, make silver purchases and finance Mexican road program, while Mexico agreed to make pay- ments on U.S. claims and at- tempt settlement of oil dispute. Of) British desert armies LM captured Rezegh, 10 mi. south of besieged Tobruk. Churchill told house of com- mons that goal of Libyan drive was to destroy axis armies. Gen. Maxime Weygand "re- tired" as Vichy proconsul in Africa; Gen. Alphonse Juin was named head of French armies in North Africa and Gen. Jean Bar- rau chief of units in west Africa. U.S. halted all economic aid to French North Africa on grounds that Weygand was oust- ed on express demand of Hitler. a Eleven C.I.O. pickets were shot and wounded in gun battle at a captive coal pit in Eden born, Pa. Sixth major offensive against Moscow in three weeks was halted at Volokolamsk and Tula. OOAnzac troops captured LL Fort Capuzzo, Italian stronghold in Libya. Berlin announced that Ger- min troops had captured Rostov. John L. Lewis called off strike in captive coal mines and ac- cepted Pres. Roosevelt's pro- posal for. arbitration of union shop issue. 00 Anzac forces recaptured &v Bardia on Libyan coast while British and nazi tank armies engaged in battle at Rezegh. Germany cut occupation cost levied against French by 100,- 000,000 francs daily. U.S. consulate in Saigon, French Indo-China wrecked by bomb; none were injured. OPM announced use of lead and tin foil for wrapping cigar- ettes, candy and similar products would be prohibited after March 15, 1942. 01 U.S. sent troops to Dutch fcT Guiana under agreement reached with Netherlands gov- ernment in London; Brazil 14 CALENDAR OF EVENTS1941 NOVEMBER Continued agreed to co-operate in military measures to protect Dutcn Guiana. U.S. would extend lend -lease aid to Free French movement, Gen. DC Gaulle's delegation in Washington announced. British reported capture of Gambut in Libya. German forces reached point 31 mi. west of Moscow. U.S. supreme court ruled as unconstitutional California anti- migrant law designed to check influx of "Okies" into that state. OC British tank units in J Libya recoiled under count- er blows of Gen. Erwin Rom- mel's panzer divisions. Pres. Roosevelt appointed William C. Bullitt as his special representative in near east. Thirteen nations, including Finland, signed anti-comintcrn pact in Berlin. Sec'y Hull submitted new proposals for readjustment of U.S. -Japanese relations to Nippon envoys Kurusu and No- mura. German troops driving toward Stalinogorsk flanked Tula. Axis forces captured 5,000 British soldiers, including two generals, in Libyan desert war, Home dispatches said. 0"? Pres. Roosevelt and Sec'y LI Hull conferred with Jap- anese envoys Kurusu and No- mura amid reports that Nip- ponese were massing troops in Indo-China. Anzac troops joined forces with section of British garrison in Tobruk; New Zcalanders re- captured Rezegh. Argentina agreed to sell U.S. all its tungsten production for three-year period; Japan had previously bought 50% of Ar- gentina's tungsten output. George S. Messersmith ap- pointed ambassador to Mexico. German reinforcements and "volunteer" native units battled organized Serb guerrillas in Yu- goslavia. Italian garrison in Gondar, last Italian outpost, in Abyssinia, surrendered to British after seven and one-half months' siege. 00 Bill providing for creation LQ of five-man board to con- trol prices was passed in house of representatives, 224 to 161. Shanghai dispatches reported 70 troop transports were moving 30,000 Japanese troops south- ward. Pres. Manuel Quezon asserted Philippines were unprepared for Acting Pres. Ram6n Castillo ordered Argentine police to ban 5,000 meetings throughout coun- try scheduled by pro- British Accion Argentina. M Russians recaptured Ros- tov, routing Col, Gen. Paul von Kleist's armies. Japanese Premier HldekiTojo declared Anglo-American "ex- ploitation" of Asiatic peoples must be "purged with a ven- geance." British submarines in Arctic sank eight nazi supply ships car- rying troops and supplies to Ger- man armies in northern U.S.S.R. British admiralty said. House military affairs com- mittee announced plans to probe charges that "defense brokers" had secured millions in commis- sions on promises to obtain government contracts. OH Japanese Foreign Minls- OU ter Shigenori Togo reject- ed as "fantastic" U.S. proposals for settling far eastern crisis. A state of emergency was de- creed in Singapore and new rein- forcements of British and Indian troops reached Rangoon, Burma. Cairo dispatches said mecha- nized British patrols reached Gulf of Sidra after 300-mi. advance across Libyan desert. DECEMBER I Pres. Roosevelt conferred with Adm. Stark and Sec'y Hull on Japanese crisis; Japanese Ambassador Nomura told press "there must be wise statesman- ship to save the situation"; To- kyo decided to continue parleys after hearing report by Foreign Minister Togo. , v Moscow dispatches said 102 German planes were destroyed and 1 1 8 tanks and 2 10 guns were captured from nazis in Rostov area. Marshal Retain and Marshal Goering met in St. Florcntin in nazi occupied France. Compromise wage agreement arranged by Pres. Roosevelt's fact-findingboard a verted threat- ened nation-wide railway strike of 1,200,000 workers. 2 Pres. Roosevelt asked Ja- pan for explanation of move- ment of troops, planes and ships into French Indo-China. British warship squadron, headed by battleship "Prince of Wales" and battle cruiser "Re- pulse," arrived at Singapore. Prime Minister Churchill asked commons for authority to draft 3,000,000 more men into armed forces and to require wom- en to join uniformed services. Gen. Rommel's axis tank units seized Rezegh, Libya. Russian forces in Dpnetz area pursued German units fleeing west along shore of Sea of Azov. Sixty persons charged with plotting to assassinate Mussolini appeared before tribunal in '1 rieste. 3 House of Representatives passed an ti -strike bill by vote of 252 to 136. Pres. Roosevelt announced that he had authorized shipments of lend-lcase supplies to Turkey. 4 Reuters dispatch said Vichy had agreed to grant Hitler naval and air bases in north Africa. , House of commons passed British conscription bill by vote of 326 to 10. 5 Japan told Pres. Roosevelt that reinforcements to Indo- China were only a precaution against Chinese troop move- ments along colony's northern border; official Tokyo spokes- man said Washington parleys would continue and that both sides were sincere. Russian armies In Don basin swept 11 mi. past Taganrog. House of representatives passed by 300 to 5 vote defense appropriation bill, authorizing $8,243,830,031 to expand U.S. army to 2,000,000 men. 6 Russians began counter- offensive along entire Mos- cow front. Pres. Roosevelt made person- al peace appeal to Emperor Hirohito after hearing reports of heavy troop concentrations in Indo-China; Philippine cabinet asked all "non-essential" civil- ians to leave Manila and other danger zones. Britain announced declara- tion of war on Finland, Hun- gary and Rumania. U.S. ordered all Finnish ships in U.S. ports put under protec- tive custody. 7 Striking without warning, Japanese naval and air forces attacked and severely damaged U.S. ships in Pearl Harbor naval base, Hawaii, and also attacked strategic points- in Philippines and Guam; Nipponese planes bombed Hongkong and Singa- pore; Japanese troops landed in Malaya and moved on Thailand from French Indo-China; Japa- nese envoys were delivering To- kyo reply to U.S. note at time of attack on U.S. possessions; note rejected U.S. terms and said U.S. and Britain were "conspiring" against Japanese interests in Asia. Netherlands government In exile in London declared war on Japan; Canada and Costa Rica also declared war. Sec'y of Treasury Morgen- thau impounded $131,000,000 in Japanese investments in U.S. and banned all trade dealings with Japan; FBI agents re- ceived orders to round up certain Japanese nationals in U.S. Russian armies broke Ger- man line on Moscow front at two points and destroyed two divisions. Pres. Roosevelt's 3-man arbi- tration board ruled that all workers in captive mines should be required to join C.I.O. ^ 8 U.S. congress declared war on Japan after Pres. Roose- velt denounced Japanese aggres- sion and "treachery" in address to joint session; senate voted 82 to and house voted "88 to I; Representative Jeanette Rankin (Rep., Mont.) was lone 1 dissenter. The pictures on this page are, left to right: ZHUKOV Oct. 23 WAVELL Nov. 2 TOJO Nov. 17 CUNNINGHAM, ALAN Nov. 18 WEYGAND Nov. 20 CALENDAR OF EVENTS*1941 15 DECEMBER-Confmved Prime Minister Churchill de- clared war on Japan in speech before house of commons; China declared war against Germany, Italy and Japan, Foreign Minis- ter Quo Tai-chi announced in Chungking; Free French govern- ment declared war against Ja- pan, as did I londuras, San Salva- dor, Guatemala, Haiti and Do- minican Republic. Thailand capitulated to Ja- pan, 18 hours after first attack; Singapore dispatches said Brit- ish troops repulsed Japanese landing party in Malaya; Japa- nese planes raided Hongkong; Tokyo radio announced capture of Wake and Guam islands and said sinking of two U.S. battle- ships* and damaging of four other capital ships in Hawaii hat! given Japanese naval mastery in Pacific. San Francisco was blacked out after reports that enemy craft were sighted over c\\y: oth- er west coast cities ami military bases were also blacked out. Berlin spokesman admitted that winter had stopjK'd German drive on Moscow and that cap- tun- of Russian capital wa.s not expected before spring. 9Pres. Roosevelt said U.S. hat! suffered serious reverses in Hawaii and told nation to ex- |.HH:t long war. False air raid alarms upset New Yorkers. Japanese landed strong forces in Kota Bharu area of northern Malaya; British armies in Hong- kong checked a Nipponese land- ing party. Cuban congress voted to de- clare war on Japan; Nicaraguan congress approved declaration of war on Japan; BraziHroze axis funds ; Argentina and Chile grant* cd U.S. special status as "non- belligerent." Washington agreed to give transit over U.S. territory to Mexican troops sent to protect Lower California. Russian armies recaptured Tikhvtn on Leningrad front, re- opening road to Moscow. The pictures on this page are, left to right: LITVINOV Dc. 13 NIMITZ D. 17 KIMMEL D*c. 17 MacARTHUR DM. 19 GOEBBELS DM. 20 M Japanese torpedo planes sank 35,000-ton battleship "Prince of Wales," ami 32,000- ton battle cruiser "Repulse" off Malaya; more than 2,000 sur- vivors were rescued from both ships; 55 wen? listed as missing. Japanese forces approached Kota Bharu, important Malay- an air base 350 mi. north of Singapore; British declared two Japanese attacks on Hongkong had been repulsed; Japs landed strong forces on northern Luzon coast while air raiders launched heavy attacks on Cavjte naval base near Manila; U.S. planes were reported to have bombed three Japanese transports, one of which capsized. Los Angeles was blacked out for three hours. Sec'y Hull urged Pan Ameri- can union to convoke Latin American foreign ministers for parley on hemisphere defense in Rio de Janeiro early in l42; Chile anil Argentina opened ne- gotiations to permit Chile to fortify Strait ot Magellan. Soviet troops captured more towns in Orel sector. British armies in Libya com- pletely freed Tobruk garrison and captured (lumbut. H Germany and Italy de- clared war on U.S. and signed new pact with Japan to preclude separate peace; U.S. congress dtn:lared war on G J4V3^ I,.K)7,J08 1 8,6 1 1 ? 2.17, If>7 22,188 3,500,111 34.0SQ 668,027 310,5" 33,474 3,809,856 31,865 856,309 342,218 30,212 Silica Stone Abrasives Grindstones Millstones (value) . Pulpstones Sharpening stones .... Silicate Abrasives Garnet ",617 W,;v>s i,024 8lO 4,863 4,653 $3,743 1,553 5U 2,660 7,017 $11,084 2,5*7 620 4,056 8,790 $6,558 4.533 4,716 Pumice Artificial Abrasives Silicon carbide 1 Aluminum oxide 3 .... Metallic abrasives 2 71,007 30,.|65 86,401 28,031 65,742 25,346 53,220 25,771 89,159 24,206 50,468 42,015 82,407 33,042 98,531 50,016 Imports; no domestic production. 'Includes Canada also. the table, except that the output was supplemented to a minor degree by imports. Pumi'c*. In addition to the production of pumice and pumicite reported in the table, U.S. imports of crude material in 1939 were 6,656 short tons, decreasing to 3,758 tons in 1940; imports of manufactures were valued at $29,221 in 1939 and $6,468 in 1940. Rotterwtone. Produced only in Pennsylvania, and used as a base in pol- ishing compounds, the output of rottenstone is included with that of tripoli. Sharpening Stones. The output of sharpening stones shown in the table, including whetstones, oilstones and hones, was supplemented by small amounts of imports. Sond and Sandstone. Included in the outputs reported in the article SAND AND GRAVEL, and under Sandstone in the article STONE, there were material outputs of ground sand and sandstone, used largely for abrasive purposes, as well as of abrasive sand. About one-quarter of the ground sand and sandstone reported in the table is used in abrasives, while the abrasive sand is used in sand blasting, grinding glass, the manufacture of sandpaper, and other types of abrasive use. Tripoli. The output of tripoli reported in the table included also that of rottenstone, a product closely related in both character and uses. Demand in the United States is satisfied almost entirely from domestic sources, imports amounting to about i % of production. Artificial Abrasives. For comparison with the demand for natural abra- sives, the output of the chief types of artificial abrasives in the United States and Canada is reported in the table. (G. A. Ro.) Abyssinia: see ETHIOPIA. Academic Freedom: see EDUCATION. Academy of Arts and Letters, American: see AMERICAN ACADEMY or ARTS AND LETTERS. Academy of Arts and Sciences, American: see AMER- ICAN ACADEMY OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. Academy of Political and Social Science, American: see AMERICAN ACADEMY OF POLITICAL AND SOCIAL SCIENCE. I941 acc ^ ent t0 ^ m tne United States was: . killed, 101,500; injured, 9,300,000; the cost, $3,750,000,000. Huge as it was, the 1941 toll was not the highest on record. In 1936 there were 110,052 deaths, or 8% more than in 1941. The year 1937 also topped 1941. The 1941 death rate per 100,000 pop- ulation was 76-2. Only n of the 40 years up to 1941 had lower rates. The lowest rate was 68-3 in 1921. The 1941 accidental death totals for the U.S., by classifications, were : ZQ4I 1940 Change AH accident** M^or vehicle Home Occupational . Public (not motor vehicle) 101,500 40,000 33,000 18,000 14,500 96,885 34,501 33,ooo 17,000 15,000 3% The all-accident totals are approximately the sums of the other figures, minus the duplication of occupational and motor vehicle deaths. This duplication in 1041 amounted to about 3,000, The 1040 all-accident and motor vehicle toUw are U S. Census Bureau figures. All others are National Safety Council estimates. Increased activity in all fields largely attributable to the ever- increasing tempo of national defense was the key to the greater accident toll. Against a backdrop of the nation's pressing need for man power, these facts stood out sharply: 1. The 1941 accident toll among men in the expanded selective service age bracket (20 to 45) was 26,000 equal to the destruction of almost two full army divisions. 2. Approximately 18,000 workers were killed by occupational accidents. An additional 29,000 were killed in off-the-job accidents. This loss of man- power represented labour sufficient to build 20 battleships, 200 destroyers and 7,000 heavy bombers. Accidents were the fifth most important cause of death in 1941. exceeded only by heart disease, cancer, cerebral haemorrhage and nephritis. One out of every 14 persons in the United States suf- fered a disabling injury during the year. The traffic toll of 40,000 was an all-time high. Since traffic deaths went up 16% and travel increased only 11%, the mileage death rate rose 4%. In industry, however, the 6% increase in deaths was far less than the 17% rise in employment in manufac- turing industries and the 9% gain in total nonagricultural em- ployment. The estimated economic loss of $3,750,000,000 covers both fatal and nonfatal accidents and includes wage losses, medical expense, the overhead costs of insurance, and property damage from motor vehicle accidents and fires. There were other large but less tan- gible losses, such as interruption of industrial production, which cannot be estimated. Persons 65 years and older were the only group with a better accident record in 1941 than in 1940. Deaths dropped i% to 27,650. The school child group (5 to 14 years) had a 10% in- crease, with deaths totalling 7,100. This increase was exceeded only by the 12% rise shown for the 15-24 year group, where deaths totalled 14,250. The 25-64 year group accounted for 45>35o fatalities a 5% rise. There were 7,150 deaths of children under five years of age, a 4% increase. Deaths from falls were about the same in 1941 as in 1940 approximately 26,000 each year. Falls are second only to motor vehicle accidents as a cause of accidental death. Deaths from burns were approximately 6,900 in 1941 a 5% drop from 1940. Drownings increased about 2% to 7,000. The year 1941 was the first in ten years in which no catas- trophe took as many as 100 lives. A Brooklyn, N.Y., ship and pier fire took 37 lives. A picnic boat explosion in Maine killed 36. The number of accidents in which five or more persons were killed was higher, however, than in 1940. This was largely be- cause of multiple-death motor vehicle, military aviation and water transportation accidents, according to Metropolitan Life Insurance company reports. As in other years, nearly all acci- dents were one-or-two death cases. The year 1941 can be characterized as a year of mobilization of accident prevention resources. Motivated by the rising accident tolls, President Roosevelt on Aug. 18 designated the National Safety council to lead an all-out attack on accident hazards in every field of activity, but with special attention to accidents in- volving workers since they constituted an indirect sabotage of the defense production program. The National Committee for the Conservation of Man Power in Defense Industries, sponsored by the U.S. department of labor, was effective in developing an awareness of accidents, and a de- termination that they could be prevented, in many branches of industry hitherto unreached by safety materials. (See also DEATH STATISTICS; DISASTERS.) (W. H. CAM.) Trqffie Accidents. The total of 40,000 deaths in 1941 was 5,500 more than in 1940* The death rate on a population base showed an increase of 14.9%. During 1941, 30 persons were killed for every 100,000 population and 12.6 persons lost their lives for each 100,000,000 motor vehicle miles travelled. While the 1 6% rise in traffic deaths is attributed in part to an 11% in- crease in travel, a contributing factor was the 5% increase in the total num- ber of motor vehicles in use. Other contributing factors included the in- ADEN ADVERTISING 19 UNITED STATES KILLED AUTOMOBILES tttttt INJURED IY AUTOMOBILES BRITISH ISLES KILLED IN AIR RAIDS Ittt WOUNDED IN AIR RAIDS . 5.000 - PERSONS I. 100.000 J- PERSONS (TOTALS ARE FOR 12 MONTHS ENDING AUG. 1. 1941) AIR-RAID CASUALTIES of the first full year of German raids on the British isles, compared with motor traffic casualties In the U.S. during the same period creased tempo resulting from the national emergency, the loss of trained enforcement personnel to selective service and the conscripting of many experienced, professional drivers to military service. Outstanding achievements in the field for 1941 may be summarized under the headings of the model highway safety program which was developed and endorsed by 12 leading organizations interested in safety in the United States. Legislation. Adoption by three additional states (Florida, Utah and Ohio) of the uniform act regulating traffic on highways as drafted by the National Conference on Street and Highway Safety; continued adoption by cities of the model municipal traffic ordinance; passage of bills in a majority of states increasing size of state police agency; passage of acts in two addi- tional states (New York and Oregon) providing for use of evidence obtained through scientific tests for intoxication; speed limits increased early in the year by several state legislatures, but toward the end of the year the trend was reversed as a means of tire and motor vehicle conservation. Several states began the consideration of bills for the control of traffic during black- outs and air raids. Motor Vehicle Administration. Establishment by the American Associa- tion of Motor Vehicle Administrators and the National Safety council of a joint project for driver improvement through suspension and revocation of drivers' licences. Enforcement. Study and development of emergency measures for the control of traffic during possible wartime disaster; stepped-up enforcement to relieve accidents and congestion resulting from increased use of motor vehicles for defense and production purposes; inauguration of the nation- wide emergency traffic law enforcement program by the International Asso- ciation of Chiefs of Police and n other national organizations. Education. Academic credit courses in safety education conducted in 82 colleges and universities in 33 states during the summer of 1940; courses in driver training offered in approximately 8,000 high schools, 400 of which supplemented classroom work with actual road lessons; inclusion of 300,- ooo children in grade school safety patrols in 3,500 cities and towns; en- listment by two states of parental co-operation in training student drivers. Engineering. Departments established in an increased number of cities and states for the planniag of traffic facilities, safeguards and regulations'. Training Personnel. Inauguration of emergency training courses for police in wartime traffic control; continued increase in the training of traffic safety engineers, educators and enforcement personnel; continued co-opera- tion of colleges and universities in conducting traffic officers' training schools. Principal training agency for educators was the New York Uni- versity Center for Safety Education; for traffic police, the Northwestern University Traffic institute; for engineers, the Yale University Bureau for Street Traffic Research. BIBLIOGRAPHY. Maxwell Halsey, Traffic Accidents and Congestion; In- ternational Association of Chiefs of Police and Northwestern University Traffic Institute, The State and Provincial Police; Institute of Traffic Engi- neers and National Conservation Bureau, Traffic Engineering Handbook; National Safety Council, The Traffic Court in the Traffic Accident Emer- gency, Trying Traffic Cases and committee reports dealing with intoxication, night driving, winter driving hazards, speed, pedestrian control and the bicycle problem. (F. M. K.) Aff0n ^ en * s a British c l n y> seaport and territory in Arabia, MUCH, situated in 12 45' N. and 45 4' E., including Perim island, etc., in the strait of Bab-el-Mandeb between Africa and Arabia. Area 80 sq.mi.; pop. (est. 1939) 48,338. Aden protectorate, including Sokotra on the Red sea coast, 112,000 sq.mi.; pop. (est.) 600,000. Governor: Sir J. Hathorn Hall. Language: Eng- lish and Arabic ; religion : Mohammedan. History. The collapse of Italian operations in northeast Africa early in 1941 removed from Aden the threat of air raids and, al- lowing for war conditions, the colony and protectorate enjoyed a comparatively normal year. From the beginning of the war to Dec. 1941, Aden had made war contributions totalling 95,000,- 528, of which 61,000,900 were contributed in 1941, a particularly generous response in view of the small population, Of the total, 50,000 represented repayment of a government loan, while 45,- ooo consisted of gifts and contributions to the general war effort, Subscriptions for aircraft, mobile canteens, etc., amounted to 30,000. In the late summer the chief secretary paid a visit to the king of the Yemen, and the governor represented Aden on the middle east war council set up under the chairmanship of the minister of state, Oliver Lyttelton. Aden was also represented at the con- ference of the middle east supply centre which opened in Cairo in November. During the war an Arab chief in the protectorate, the Fadhli Sultan of Shuqra, was deposed for misgovernment and oppressive rule, and was succeeded by a cousin elected by the tribe. (D. A. C.) Finance. Revenue (1938-39) 148,586; expenditure (1938-39) 127,- 96v, currency, legal tender: rupee (Rs.i)-u. 6rf.=30.3 U.S. cents. Trade and Communication. External trade 1938 (merchandise and treas- ure on private account): imports, by sea, Rs. 6, 78, 60,400; by land Rs.29,- 40,602; exports, by sea Rs. 4 j,4i,4s.28i ; by land Rs.is.95,929; (treasure) imports Rs. 1,23, 69,439; exports Rs.72,so,784. Communication: shipping (1938), 2,079 merchant vessels (1.361 British) entered, total tonnage 8,650,411 net tons: motor vehicles registered (Sept. 30, 1939), 733 cars and taxis, 207 commercial vehicles. Production. (1938-39) Tobacco (approx. value of crop) Rs. 500,000; salt 282,994 tons; (export) 248,784 tons; coffee (export) 4,900 metric tons. Adjusted Compensation: see VETERANS ADMINISTRATION. ^ Austrian author and professor of f t music, was born in Eibenschuetz, Moravia, then part of Austria-Hungary, on Nov. i. A professor of musical science at the University of Vienna, Adlcr in 1894 undertook the editing of the Denkntdler der Tonkunst in Osterreich, a publica- tion of Austrian musical works, which in 1941 was in its goth vol- ume. He was the author of books on Richard Wagner and Franz Joseph Haydn, and while at the University of Vienna founded an institution for musical history. Adler died in Vienna in February. Adult Education: see EDUCATION Aril/Ortioinff ^ e l em ^ ease program, priorities and finally ftUVClUolllg. entrance of the United States into World War II were the dominating factors in business and, consequently, in advertising in 1941. Priorities and shortage of certain materials, particularly metals, began to affect certain classes of goods. Con- tinuance of the war kept advertising activity in the United King- dom at about half its normal level. Advertising rates rose to off- set in part the smaller volume. In the United States, advertising expenditures were $1,736,000,000 in 1941, an increase of 4-6%. Newspaper linage increased 3-8%; radio, 11-0%; magazines, 3-3%; outdoor, IM%; farm papers, 0-5%. Direct mail adver- tising volume increased 5-8%. These estimates are based upon studies reported in Printers' Ink. Governments used advertising on a larger scale than ever be- fore for increasing enlistments in military service and for the sale of bonds. Great Britain and Canada sold bonds at the low selling cost of 1-5%. The U.S. treasury engaged an experienced adver- tising consultant for the defense bond campaign. South America. Considerable progress was made in the standardization of space rates. The rate situation had been rather chaotic. Although rate cards were published, they were regarded as the basis of energetic dicker- ing which usually resulted in securing sizeable reductions by the more persuasive advertisers. This was no longer the case in 1941. Card rates held for all. The circulation of many papers in new industrial areas in- creased greatly. This resulted in the installation of high-speed presses and improved printing. There was no guarantee of circulation statements by publishers and there was no prospect of establishing independent audits of circulation. One peculiarity of the South American field was the supplying of radio talent by the station management without extra charge. In the United States, radio talent is specifically paid for by the advertiser. Copy and Layout. There was an increasing use of humour. In the past, humour had been handled cautiously and sparingly. This trend began in 1940 and continued with greater strength in 1941 in the growing use of humorous situations, the injection of humour into the strip continuity, and the use of already established comic personalities. 20 ADVERTISING While defense and war had produced important effects, they had not, however, turned advertisers away from product selling. In a survey it was estimated that only 4% of advertisements were not built around product selling. The other 96% were directed definitely at selling goods and serv- ices. The 4% of advertisements tied in with war and defense fell into two groups. The first group consisted of advertisements which showed either a man in uniform using the product or a military scene in the background. The second group consisted of advertisements of companies devoted entirely to the making of war goods. These advertisements were usually institutional and described the contribution of the company to the defense effort. Some companies, although they had no goods to offer to the public, still advertised their products on the ground that they would be available as soon as the war was over. The Federal Trade commission continued its surveillance of advertising^ causing advertisers to be cautious in the use of product claims. Radio. Advertisers in the United States spent $107,500,000 for time on the three major networks in 1941, an increase of 11%. In addition they spent $35,000,000 on programs, an increase of 24%. This increase was due in part to some shifting from quiz programs, which are relatively inexpen- sive, to the more costly variety shows. News broadcasts greatly increased with the spread of the war, by means of listening posts in the U.S. and a large staff of correspondents throughout the world. Advertisers capitalized on this interest by increasing their commercial sponsorship of news. Sta- tions and sponsors contributed generously of their time to the defense effort. The "Treasury Hour" was perhaps the most important one. It was esti- mated that stations on the average devoted 760 min. and 227 announce- ments to the defense effort in the month of July 1941 alone. With the entry of the United States into the conflict, most stations entered on a 24-hr, schedule and broadcast news every hour or half hour. Radio achieved its largest audience, estimated at 90,000,000 persons, with the broadcast of Pres. Roosevelt's address on Tuesday, Dec. 9. (See also 'RADIO.) Newspapers. Total circulation of daily and Sunday newspapers reached an all-time high of 41,500,000 copies, a gain of 2% over 1940. During the year, the Chicago Sun was founded. There was some increase in the use of colour in newspapers. (See also NEWSPAPERS AND MAGAZINES.) Magazines Twenty-one leading magazines issued a total of 1,103,000,000 net paid copies during the 12 months ending June 30, 1941, a gain of 5.5% over the corresponding 1940 period. Two or three magazines began to dis- tribute their copies in substantial numbers by air express in South America. Direct Mail. Tnere were no material changes in expenditure for direct mail, in number of advertisers using this medium, in postal regulations or in methods of mechanical reproduction. However, there was a reduction in novelty mailing pieces due, probably, to their greater cost. There was much publicity concerning the over-use of the congressional franking privilege, referred to in the press as the "franking fraud." It was alleged that con- gressmen condoned the use of their franking privilege by pressure groups of both American and foreign origin. Users of direct mail felt that it de- creased the effectiveness of their own mailing pieces because of the competi- tion for attention with franked propaganda. Outdoor. The year 1941 was marked by a practically complete standardi- zation of structures and services. This was due partly to the Outdoor Ad- vertising association and partly to the extension of the services of the Traffic Audit bureau which audited practically every outdoor plant in the United States triannually. Every panel was given a rating by the bureau and plant operators undertook to re-locate low-rated panels in places where they would receive higher ratings. With this standardization of ratings, the purchase of outdoor advertising circulation became comparable to the pur- chase of space and time in other major media. The growth of self-service merchandising, the increase in super-markets and the expanding use of open display in all types of retail outlets reduced or eliminated salesclerk influ- ence on consumer purchases and placed greater emphasis on product and label identification and on the use of panels in shopping centres or on traffic arteries approaching them. There also was a tendency for national adver- tisers in a wider variety of fields to use the outdoor medium. Television.- July i, 1941, marked the birthday of commercial television. Commercially sponsored programs were televised for the first time on that day. Three stations offered programs, WCBW (CBS), W2XWV (Dumont) and WNBT (NBC). There were 2? stations and approximately 6,000 re- ceiving sets. (See also TELEVISION.) Point of Purchase. The Point of Purchase Advertising institute got under 1928 1929 1930 1931 1932 1933 1934 1935 1936 1937 1938 1939 1940 1941 (HMO, 194* ( '"'' ) 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 MILLIONS OF LINES NEWSPAPER ADVERTISING (total linage In 52 ciiiei of the United States): average per month. Compiled by Media Records, (no. If something looks suspicious around the place/ report it Quietly and Promptly to the Boss ... It may be important! Have it checked by EXPERTS... &*&fa// * * * You are a PRODUCTION SOLDIER . . . America's First Line of Defense is HERE HUMOROUS POSTER with a serious message, drawn by Cyrui Hungerford In 1941 for display in U.S. defenie plants way and endeavoured to provide information regarding this medium, to check on sales effectiveness of displays and to co-ordinate this form of ad- vertising with other media. Retail Advertising. The major development was the increase in the amount of information the retailer was required to give. Under the labelling act administered by the Federal Trade commission, textiles, for example, must be labelled to show the percentages of the different kinds of materials in them. Drugs, likewise, must be properly described. Another outstanding trend in retailing was the growth of the cash-and-carry system and self- service in department stores. The variety chains originated the movement some years ago. Super-markets grew by leaps and bounds during 1941. There was even a tendency to use self-service in women's ready-to-wear stores and in basement sections of department stores. Ways were being de- vised so that customers might examine practically all of the stock without need of salespersons. Complete labelling and more factual adveriising be- came a part of the movement. After the fall of France and the disappearance of Paris as the fashion centre, the New York Dress institute was organized and made an aggressive start toward establishing New York as the world's fashion centre by in- augurating an extensive advertising campaign. Consumers. The year 1941 witnessed a widening interest of consumers in their economic role as consumers. Objectives of the "consumer move- ment" became integral parts of the thought and action of consumers in 1941. Although these activities received impetus from the defense programs, none was initiated solely because of defense. Heading the list of activities was consumer education, including choice-making, market selection, use and care of products and emphasis upon the relation of the consumer to the economic order. Numerous educational units were organized t> including women's clubs, local consumer groups, church groups, co-operatives, com- munity centres and defense-Inspired consumer councils. Emphasis was placed on conservation and reduction of waste. Consumers were being edu- cated to select essential goods, to have more concern for the use and care of appliances, to salvage used materials, to understand the importance of national resources, national defense and nutrition, to check the abuse of the returned-goods privilege, to cut down on deliveries and to perform some of the distribution services themselves. Consumers were insisting more upon facts to guide them in buying and in the use and care of products, through more informative advertisements, better-informed salespersons, informative labels, grade labels and buying AFGHANISTAN AGRICULTURE 21 guides. The demand for standards increased with the growing scarcity of goods. Consumers became less reformist toward business and more realistic and willing to co-operate with business groups, as witnessed, for example, by the Committee on Consumer Relations in Advertising and the National Consumer-Retailer council. Consumer groups were also interested not only in the enactment of pro- tective legislation but also in securing a voice in the administration of such measures through the growing demand for a federal department of the con- sumer in the cabinet. There was clear evidence of a shift in consumer income. The net spend- able income of the higher and middle groups was being reduced by heavier taxes. The lower groups were less affected by taxation and were receiving a larger share of the gross dollar income. Many marginal consumers were being brought into the active spending groups. Rtstarch. An outstanding achievement was the completion of the four- year study of the economic effects of advertising under the direction of Neil Borden and an advisory committee of the Harvard Graduate School of Busi- ness Administration. The study was financed by a grant by Mrs. A. W. Erickson as a memorial to her late husband who had been a noted adver- tising agency executive. It was carried out under the auspices of the Ad- vertising Research foundation. The findings of this research are set forth in a volume of nearly x,ooo pages. The year 1941 also marked the completion of ten years of continuous measurement of the readership of advertisements in magazines, known as the Advertising Rating Service, conducted by Daniel Starch and staff. In this continuing program, approximately 120,000 individual interviews are conducted each year. The reports give the number of readers attracted by each advertisement in the magazines covered and the per-reader cost. BIBLIOGRAPHY, Among the 1941 books on advertising and related fields were: Neil H. Borden, The Economic Effects of Advertising; A. J. Brewster and H. H. Palmer, Introduction to Advertising (4th ed.); K. M. Goode, Advertising; H. W. Hcpner, Effective Advertising; O. Kleppner, Advertis- ing Procedure (3rd. cd.); W. A. Lowen and L. E. Watson, How to Get a Job and Win Success in Advertising. (D. ST.) ^ Muslim kingdom lying between India and Persia; area 250,000 sq.mi.; pop. (est. 1937) 10,000,000; chief towns: Kabul (cap., 80,000), Kandahar (60,- ooo), Herat (50,000), Mazar-i-Sharif (30,000). Ruler: Muham- mad Zahir Shah; languages: Persian, Pushtu, and some Turki in the north; religion: Mohammedan. History. Under its enlightened monarch the country was ad- vancing steadily in education and in the industries which are ex- pected to exercise a civilizing influence on its turbulent people. But endeavours to stir up trouble were not lacking. The ex-Amir Aman-ul-lah was hanging on to the other side of the frontier and was believed to be under nazi orders to foment disaffection. The faqir of Ipi, an old campaigner among the tribes, was also intrigu- ing. The king, however, was most correct in his neutrality, and his handling of the German colony in the country in the closing months of 1941 gave proof of his sincerity. German nationals organized themselves as a foreign branch of the nazi party, and were developing active pro-Hitler propaganda on the approved fifth-column lines. Their position was one of some strength; they were employed as experts in economic development and in educa- tion, as engineers and as suppliers of machinery and plant for in- dustrial enterprises. On British representations, however, the gov- ernment ordered the deportation of all German and Italian na- tionals; and a considerable danger to India was thus averted. During the year, Sir Francis Wylie succeeded Sir William Fraser- Tytler as British minister at Kabul. (ME.) Education. Elementary schools exist throughout the country, but sec- ondary schools exist only in Kabul and provincial capitals; both are free. There were, in 1940, 130 primary schools and one normal school for teach- ers in Kabul. In addition there were 4 secondary schools and 13 military schools. Technical, art, commercial and medical schools exist for higher education. The Kabul university was established in 1932; only a medical faculty existed in 1940. Defontt. Army, compulsory service; peace strength 60,000. Financ*. Revenue and expenditure about Rupees (Afghan) 150,000,000; currency: Rs. 3-95 (Afghan) = Rs. i (Indian). Rs. i (Afghan) = $d. approximately, or about 8.4 cents, U.S. Trad* and Communication. (i939~4o) Exports to India: Afghan mer- chandise Rs. 3,97,06,681; treasure Rs. 16,655; non-Afghan merchandise Rs. 2,008. Imports: Indian produce Rs. 72,79,399; other produce (im- ported through India and in transit) Rs. 1,96,25,197. Persian lambskin is one of the most important exports. Other exports are carpets, fruit, wool and cotton. Roads: trade routes, Kabul to Peshawar (India), 210 mi., and Kandahar to Chaman, 70 mi.; there were about 2,265 ml. of unmetalled roads connecting the chief towns. At the beginning of 1941 there were five wireless stations in the country. Agriculture Wheat, rice, millet, maize, sheep, Persian lambskin, wool (1938) 6,800 metric tons. BIBUOOKAPHY, Sir Percy Sykes, A History of Alshanistan, a vob. ( 1 940) . A. F. of L: see AMERICAN FEDERATION OF LABOR. Africa, British East: see BRITISH EAST AFRICA. Africa, British South: see BRITISH SOUTH AFRICAN PROTEC- TORATES. Africa. British Wost: see BRITISH WEST AFRICA. Africa. French Equatorial: see FRENCH COLONIAL EMPIRE. Africa. French West: see FRENCH COLONIAL EMPIRE. Africa. Italian East: see ITALIAN COLONIAL EMPIRE. Africa, Portuguese East and West: see PORTUGUESE CO- LONIAL EMPIRE. Africa, Spanish West: see SPANISH COLONIAL EMPIRE. Africa, Union of South: see SOUTH AFRICA, THE UNION OF. Agricultural Adjustment Administration: see AGRICUL- TURE. Agricultural Chemistry and Engineering, U.S. Bureau of: see CHEMISTRY AND ENGINEERING, AGRICULTURAL, U.S. BU- REAU OF. Agricultural Machinery: see FARM MACHINERY. Agricultural Marketing Service: see AGRICULTURE. Crops. Following the severe droughts of 1934 and 1936, the United States had five con- secutive years of exceptionally good crops. During these five years, total production of $3 important crops ranged from 4% to 13% above the xo-year average, 1923-32. Probably never before have there been five consecutive years of such good crops. These five crops would have been even larger had the acreages of the '2os been planted. Acreages were 3% to 8% below those of 1923-32, whereas yields were 13% to 21% above the ten-year average. The increase in yields more than offset the decrease in acreage. The year 1941 brought the highest yields and the second largest production in history. The 1941 production and yields of wheat, corn and sorghum were the best from 1936-41 (Table I). The only major crops with relatively low production for 1941 were cotton and tobacco. The small crops of cotton and tobacco were due in part to smaller acreage and in part to lower yields. On the whole, the United States had been favoured since 1936 with good weather conditions for crop production. The good weather more than compensated for attempts to decrease produc- tion. Hence the nation was indebted to weather for placing it in a strong position for meeting extra wartime demands. Livestock. The severe droughts of 1934 and 1936 caused a drastic liquidation of the numbers of livestock on farms in the United States. With five consecutive good grain crops, forage crops and pasture that followed the droughts, stockmen restored their herds as rapidly as feed and breeding practice permitted. The index of meat animals on farms rose from 103 on Jan. i, 1937, to 112 in 1941 (Table II). The numbers of animals on farms Jan. 1942 were even higher. The supply of meat animals on farms in 1941 was 12% greater than during the ten years pre- ceding the drought, greater than the peak year of the *2os, and much greater than at any previous high point in history. The greatest expansion and contraction were in numbers of hogs. The largest number of hogs during the *2os, 69,000,000, dwindled to 43,000,000 after the droughts of the early '305 (Table II). However, with the good corn crops of 1937 to 1939, the num- ber increased rapidly, reaching 60,000,000 by 1940. Beef cattle numbers declined from a high of 40,000,000 during the '203 to 31,000,000 during the '305. Since 1939 they have steadily in- creased. The numbers of dairy cattle have increased steadily re- gardless of droughts. The total number of cattle in 1941 was 10% above the drought level and about the same as the high point of the '2os. Numbers of sheep and limbs have steadily increased since the '205 and were in 1941 near the highest in history. 22 AGRICULTURE By 1941 the index of meat animals per capita, 101, had risen to slightly above the average of 1923-32. Even though per capita numbers of livestock were high relative to drought years, they were considerably below the high point of the 'aos, 122. Although the total supplies of meat animals were the highest in history, the amount of meat available to each individual was considerably less than the peak of the '205 and much less than the earlier peaks. (See also LIVESTOCK.) Prices. The outstanding phenomenon of the agricultural situa- tion during 1941 was the sharp rise in prices of all farm products. During the year ending in Sept. 1941, United States farm prices rose more than 40%. The rise was widespread. The greatest per- centage advances occurred in prices of cotton and hogs, which rose 91% and 80%, respectively. Most farm products rose from 30% to 50%. The products which rose the most were not necessarily those with the highest prices. For example, in Sept. 1941, prices of cot- ton and hogs were very little more than the average of all farm Table I. Crop Production in fh United Stares 193 i~ig32 Drought Five good crop years Crop average i 03ft 1937 1038 1939 1940 1941* Corn, million bu 2r583 1,507 2,651 2,52 2,602 2,461 2,673 Wheat, million bu. . . . jo 627 876 Q32 751 812 046 Oats, million bu ii*.*7 786 1,162 1,068 936 1,246 1,176 Barley, million bu. . . . *M M7 220 2 53 275 310 359 Rice, million bu. . 40 50 53 53 54 54 54 Grain snrghums.million Ui. 100 55 ,)8 QU 83 i-vS 154 Soybeans, million bu. . . ot 30 45 63 01 77 107 Potatoes, million bu.. , . 360 332 395 .174 363 378 358 Apples, million bu. . . Hay, million tons ... 101 72 76 64 116 73 82 Hi 143 76 114 5 126 82 Cotton, million bales. . . 14 12 IQ 12 12 13 11 Tobacco, million Ib. . . i, 377 1,155 l,5f'3 1,376 1,858 1,456 1,280 Index of 53 crops . 100 70-5 ii.v6 105-5 103-0 108.1 III.O *Decembcr i estimate. t 1924-3 2 average. products. Hogs were not as high as lambs or beef cattle. In gen- eral, prices of livestock and livestock products were much higher than grains and other foods. The rise in prices of farm products was due to a combination of several factors. Higher government loan rates for products sealed under the farm program contributed to increased prices of grains and cotton. Purchases by the government for British ac- count raised prices of certain livestock products. A short crop, high domestic consumption, and rigid restriction on sales of government-held cotton raised cotton prices. Some persons contended that the advance in farm prices was due to increased consumer purchasing power. However, it is doubtful whether the demand for food increased with incomes. The additional incomes went for automobiles, clothing and other nonfood items. One of the reasons farm prices in the United States rose was that world prices of these products rose. Since the gold content of the dollar was fixed, United States prices necessarily followed world prices. World prices rose probably because production in war areas declined and because the demand for food products rose relative to the demand for money. (See also PRICES.) Parity Farm Prices. The concept of a parity for farm prices was developed during the depression of the early '305. At that time, prices farmers received were only about one-half the prices they paid for articles bought. It was argued that prices should be raised so that farmers would have as much purchasing power in terms of things they bought as they had during 1910-14. Farm prices have tended to be high relative to farm costs when the general price level was rising; and low, when falling. The period 1910-14" was chosen as one during which a normal rdationship existed between farm prices and costs because the price level was relatively stable following a period of gradual ad- vance. When the price level fell from 1920 to 1932, prices that TTTSr 1 IT 1922 1926 1930 1934 1938 1942 Fig. 1. INDEX NUMBERS OF PRICE* RECEIVED BY FARMERS FOR FARM PRODUCTS, PRICES PAID (INCLUDING INTEREST AND TAXES), AND THE PURCHASING POWER OF FARM PRODUCTS, 1914 to 1941. Prices received by farmers fluctuated more violently than prices of articles they bought. With deflation, the purchasing power of farm products fell; and, with rising prices, It rose farmers received fell more rap- idly and by a greater amount than prices they paicj. Thus, the purchasing power of farm prod- ucts declined to about one-half of parity. Since 1932 the vari- ous farm programs have aimed at restoring parity farm prices; that is, a purchasing power equal to 1910-14. The purchas- ing power of farm prices rose sharply with the droughts of 1934 and 1936 (fig. i). Farm prices almost reached parity during a brief period in the spring of 1937, but net farm in- comes did not reach parity be- cause of the very low produc- tion during the drought years. From Aug. 1939 to Oct. 1941, farm prices rose from 70% to 101% of parity. At the same time, production levels continued high. As a result of parity prices and good crops, farmers probably received parity incomes in 1941 for the first time since 1919. During 1941 there was much controversy over the level of prices fair to farmers. In the debates on price fixing, some persons contended that there was no justification for farm prices as high as parity. It was argued that the 1910-14 base period was one of abnormal prosperity for farmers. It was contended that, since farm prices had been below parity for two decades, their normal level should be lower than 1910-14. It was not recognized that farm prices were low during the '205 and '303 primarily because of the effect of falling prices on the price structure rather than because of any fundamental changes in agriculture. The low purchasing power of farm prices during those years was not normal. This is further indicated by the fact that, when the general price struc- ture rose during 1941, farm prices reached parity in spite of large crops. With a further rise in the general price level, it was to be expected that farm prices would rise to 1 10% to 115% of parity, or even higher. The most justifiable level of farm prices may not INDEX 1929 1931 1933 1935 1937 1939 1941 Fig. 2. INDEX NUMBERS OF PRICES* OF 40 BASIC COMMODITIES FOR THE UNITED STATES AND THE WORLD, IN GOLD, 1929 TO 1941. From 1929 to 1933, United States prlcei fell with world prices; from 1935-37 and 1939-41, they rose with world prices AGRICULTURE 23 IN 175 165 155 145 '17 &?*/ 1 r AUGUST i< 09 -JULY 11 14-100/ / WORLD W/ Rl / 135 125 r/ > 7 115 105 95 85 JULY AUO WORLD WAR II -V / =,r ^^ ,X 'U JULY '15 JULY '16 JULY '39 AUG. '40 AUG. '41 Fig. 3. INDEX NUMBERS OF FARM PRICES OF ALL FARM PRODUCTS IN THE UNITED STATES, WORLD WAR I AND WORLD WAR II. During the first 24 months of World War II, prices paid to producers for farm prod- ucts followed approximately the same course as that for World War I be the low level of 1921 or 1932 following deflation, nor the high levels of 1917-18, nor some high level in the early '408 fol- lowing inflation. The best esti- mate of equitable prices for farmers must be made from some period such as 1910-14 when the whole price level was in equilibrium. In 1941 the 1910-14 farm price relationships were defined by law as parity; that is, these relationships purported to place agriculture on a parity with other industries. However, there is considerable justifica- tion for farm prices which would give farmers more purchasing power than in 1910-14. For more than a century prior to 1910 the purchasing power of farm prices had gradually risen. With declining per cap- ita food production, this upward trend should have continued. Of course it was interrupted by the maladjustments in the price structure following World War I. However, in the long run, the upward trend will probably continue. Higher pur- chasing power for agriculture is also justified by the higher purchasing power of city workers. At the same time that farm prices reached parity during the summer of 1941, the purchas- ing power of city wages in terms of city costs of living rose to 84% above parity. City wages were above parity continuously during the '205 and '305. In view of these facts, it would seem that the rising farm prices of 1941 merely restored to farmers a part of their rightful standard of living. Table II. Number of livestock on Farms in fhe U. $., January 1942 ooo's omitted Index of meat Yrar Sheep and lambs Hogs and pigs Beef cuttle Dairy cattle Chickens animals Total Per Capita 1923-32 average 4-u.Hoo 59,000 30,200 32,000 446,000 10 IOO Low year of '20* 3Moo S 2,IOO 2(>,2OO 29,800 370,000 94 u6 High year of '20* 48,400 ()Q,3OO 40,100 31,000 475,000 107 122 1937, after droughts . . 5*,5oo 42,800 .U.SOO 35,300 420,000 103 95 IQJ8 52,700 44,200 ^l.OOO 35,100 387,000 103 94 1939 53,8oo 49,300 30,000 35,900 413,000 105 95 1940 5 4,500 60,20O 32,200 30,0oo 429,000 ill 101 1941 . 55.000 53,000 34,300 37,400 414,000 112 101 World and United States Prices. -The spectacular rise in prices of farm and other basic commodities during 1941 was world- wide (fig. 2). Prices in the United States merely followed the trend of prices in other countries. In terms of gold, prices have usually been about the same in different parts of the world. By 1934, both world and United States prices in gold had fallen to one-half their 1929 level. Both made a moderate recovery from 1934 to 1937, but lost these gains from the spring of 1937 to the summer of 1939. From the outbreak of World War II to the fall of 1941, both the United States and world prices had risen 40%, back to the peak of 1937. As long as the United States price level in gold is tied to the world price level in gold and the dollar is a fixed amount of gold, United States prices in terms of dollars will also be tied to world prices in gold. This is a very simple but important principle not commonly understood or taken into consideration in efforts to control prices. The efforts of neither the Farm board of the Hoover administra- tion nor the AAA program of the Roosevelt administration were Fig. 4. -INDEX NUMRERS OF FARM PRICES OF MEAT ANIMAJ-S AND DAIRY PRODUCTS FOR WORLD WARS I AND II. During the second year of World War II, prices rose more rapidly and by a greater amount than during the same period of World War I. This held true for both meat animals and dairy products successful in raising world prices or raising United States prices in gold relative to the rest of the world. Similarly, efforts to curb advancing prices in 1941 were, arid would probably be in 1942, harassed by an advancing world price level. Prices during World Wars I and II. During the first 24 mo. of World War II, world and United States prices of basic com- modities rose about the same amount as during the comparable period of World War I. Similarly, United States farm prices rose about the same amount during the first two years of both wars (fig.. 3). The rise in farm prices during World War II was a little greater than during World War I, because farm prices were especially depressed relative to other prices at the outbreak of World War II. During the first 24 mo. of World War II, prices of meat animals rose much more rapidly than was the case in World War I (fig. 4, left). Prior to World War I, the United States raised more meat than it consumed. However, prior to World War II, con- sumption was practically equal to production. The United States had less meat to spare at the outbreak of World War II than at the beginning of World War I. Consequently, additional wartime demands for meat raised prices faster during the later conflict. Prices of dairy products also rose faster during World War II (fig. 4, right). Prior to 1914, the United States exported small amounts of dairy products, whereas prior to 1939, imports were the rule. Because of the shortage in the United States, the addi- tional demand for export to Great Britain raised prices sharply. Prices of cotton and cotton-seed, chickens and eggs and fruits during the first part of World War II followed their World War I patterns (figs. 5 and 6). Grain prices rose by about the same amounts during the first two years of both wars. However, the level of grain prices was somewhat lower during 1939 to 1941 than 1914 to 1916. iNDEXr .. ., ._ "tJuLY'i? JULY '14 " JULY ; ii JULY '16 JULY '17 AUG. '39 AUG. '40 AUG '41 AUG. '39 AUG. '40 AUG. '41 Fig. 5. INDEX NUMBERS OF FARM PRICES OF COTTON AND COTTON- SEED AND CHICKENS AND EGGS FOR WORLD WARS I AND II. After the first twelve months of World Wars I and II, prices of cotton began to rise. During World War II, the rise was especially sharp during 1941. During the first two years of both wars, prices of chickens and eggs followed about the same course 24 AGRICULTURE WHILE THE GERMAN ARMIES drove deeper into the U.S.S.R. In the summer of 1941, women collectivist farmers toiled long hours to get the harvest in before the enemy arrived AAA Farm Program. From 1939 to 1941, farmers were op- erating under the AAA act of 1938, which continued the soil con- servation program and commodity loans. The act improved mar- keting agreements and quotas and added the new features, parity payments, crop insurance and surplus commodity disposal. Dur- ing these years, greater compliance with the various farm pro- grams was encouraged by parity payments and by the threat or actual existence of more widespread marketing agreements. In 1939-40 the agricultural program cost the United States almost $1,000,000,000 (Table III). More than half this amount Table III. Cosh of Agricultural Adjustment Program, Fiscal Year 7939-40 Agricultural conservation payments $518,000,000 Parity payments 215,000,000 Payments for purchase of agricultural commodities 67,000,000 Payments under Sugar act 47,000,000 Expenses, county 43,000,000 Expenses, Washington, D.C ; 18,000,000 Total $008,000,000 was for conservation payments. The next largest item was parity payments, aggregating $215,000,000. Continental sugar producers collected $27,000,000; and Hawaii and Puerto Rico producers, $20,000,000. The costs of administration averaged about 7% of the payments. The 1940-41 agricultural program cojt about the same as the 1939-40 program. ' TabU IV. Payments to farmers under f/ie - ._:,$ 1939-40 Agricultural Ad/ujfmnf Program Cotton $215,000,000 Corn 150,000,000 Wheat 138,000,000 Sugar 47,000,000 Other crops* 20,000,000 Range $ 14,000,000 Gcncralf 172,000,000 %, : ; :"\> $756,000,000 . *Tobacco, potatoes, rice, vegetables, naval stores and peanuts, in order named. tOcneral division, $71,000,000; and soil-building practices, $101,000,000. Most of the money paid farmers under the 1939 farm program went to cotton, corn and wheat producers (Table IV). Sugar was also favoured. For all other crops, the farmers collected prob- ably less than 5% of the total; where these crops represented more than half the total value of all crops. The specific pay- ments to cotton producers were about 40% of the value of the crop; wheat, 27%; corn, 10%; and other crops, less than i%. The largest payment in any one state went to Texas, $99,000,- ooo (Table V). There were n states that received from $27,000,- ooo to $61,000,000. In general, the most favoured states were in areas of intensive corn, cotton or wheat production. Payments in Table V. Approximate Distribution of Gov'f Expend/fares to Starts, 1939-40 Texas $00*000,000 North Dakota $3:2,000,000 Iowa 61,000,000 Minnesota 31,000,000 Illinois 43,000,000 Oklahoma . 20,000,000 Nebraska 37,000,000 Missouri 28,000,000 Kansas 36,000,000 Arkansas 28,000,000 Mississippi 33,000,000 Alabama 27,000,000 40 states and territories, average $9,000,000 southern states were approximately 18% of the farm value of all southern crops; and in northern states, 14%. After eight years of AAA programs in the United States, some generalizations can be made concerning their effect on farmers and agriculture. As a relief measure for farmers, cash payments no doubt raised the standard of living of many farmers relative to the rest of the U.S. These payments were much needed and gratefully received. They were the farm counterpart of city relief cheques. However, unlike city relief, farm payments were given in proportion to re- duction in production rather than in proportion to needs. One of the effects of the AAA program of reducing production was to raise prices. However, raising prices by reducing produc- tion did not raise farm income. Prices and production tended to be compensating factors; that is, a large crop at low prices brought about as many dollars as a small crop at high prices. Another effect of reducing production and raising prices in the United States was to encourage high-cost producers in other coun- tries to increase production. Thus the program tended to turn U.S. foreign markets over to foreign producers. To regain these foreign markets, the American farmer could eliminate this for- eign competition only by selling his product at unremunerative prices for several years. It is difficult for a democracy to operate a successful ever- AGRICULTURE 25 iNDEXr 210 180 150 120 90 GRAINS WORLD WAR I AUGUST 1909- JULY 1914-100 60 JULY "14 AUG. '39 JULY '15 AUG. '40 -WORI ILDWARII JULY '16 AUG. '41 JULY '17 Fig. 6. INDEX NUMBERS OF FARM PRICES OF GRAINS AND FRUITS FOR WORLD WARS I AND II. During the first two years of World War I and World War II, there was relatively little rise in the price of grains. Prices of fruits followed about the tame course during the two wars normal granary. The tendency is to put everything in and take nothing out. The only salvation for an ever-normal granary is an unpredictable sharp rise in prices because of severe drought, war, or some other force. Schemes for holding crops fail miserably when prices fall for several years. The Farm board, which oper- ated from the late '205 to the early '305, gave an excellent illus- tration of an ever-normal granary when prices were falling. An avowed advantage of the ever-normal granary has been to carry part of large production in good crop years over into poor crop years. However, in the case of cotton, this was formerly done by farmers and the trade. In the case of grains, the excesses of good years were carried over into following crop years largely in the form of livestock. When grain was plentiful and relatively cheap, it was profitable to feed more to the existing livestock. With continued good crops, the numbers of livestock continued large; but, when short crops occurred, feeding was no longer profitable and the slaughter of livestock temporarily increased, thereby reducing the number. During drought years, the live- stock produced from current poor crops necessarily declined, but the deficiency was made up from the slaughter of the excess ac- cumulated during the good crop years. Thus farmers tended to operate their own ever-normal granary. They kept the grain in the form of meat animals rather than in corn cribs and grain ele- vators. In many ways, the farmer's system was preferable to the AAA system because the surplus was kept in a form more quickly available to city consumers and for emergencies, such as addi- tional foreign demands in time of war. The conservation aspects of the farm program have been effec- tive in encouraging better soil-building practices, reseeding of pastures, erosion control, protective summer fallowing, green manure and cover crops, and the like. Undoubtedly, a somewhat Fig. 7. INDEX NUMBERS OF THE PHYSICAL VOLUME OF CROP PRO- DUCTION PER CAPITA AND OF TOTAL AGRICULTURAL EXPORTS OF THE UNITED STATES, 1880-1941. From 1880 to about 1915, there was some tendency for the production of crops per capita to increase slightly. Since that time, they have declined. The physical volume of exports rose to about the turn of the century. Thereafter, a decline set In and continued to 1941. The only interruption was during and immediately following the war from 1915 to 1922 greater-than-otherwise future production has been provided for. Of course it must be realized that this was accomplished at the expense of a somewhat reduced immediate production. A provision for government sponsored crop insurance was in- cluded in the AAA act of 1938. An agency was set up to write insurance against loss in wheat yields. Considerable insurance was written against the wheat crops of 1939 to 1941, particularly in the great plains area. In general, the popularity of this part of the program depended on the size of the crop the preceding year. Where farmers carried insurance every year, their incomes from wheat were more or less stabilized. From 1935 to 1941, one of the features of the AAA was the Surplus Marketing administration which bought farm products for government account and gave them to those in lovy-income groups. This action was supposed to serve two purposes: first, to take troublesome surpluses off the markets so that farmers would obtain better prices; and second, to improve the diets of those with low incomes. This part of the AAA program was probably more effective as an urban relief measure than as an aid to farm- ers. Farmers' benefits depended only on the extent to which I860 1890 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 Fig. 8. VALUE OF NET U.S. EXPORTS OR IMPORTS OF FOOD IN PER CENT OF FARM INCOME, 1882-1940. From about 1890 to about 1900, net exports mounted relative to production. From 1900 to the war in 1914, the excess of exports vanished. During and after the war from 1915 to 1922, there was an excess of exports of food. Since 1923, imports of food have exceeded exports; and In 1936, were 5% of farm Income. Even after four good crop years, about 3% more food was consumed in 1940 than produced in the nation prices were raised. No doubt some prices were raised, but pos- sibly prices of products not purchased under the program were correspondingly lowered. The rise in the average price of farm products depended on the rise in the average food consumption in the U.S. Whether the consumption of the low-income classes was actually increased is debatable. People tend to eat about the same amounts of food whether their incomes are high or low and whether they obtain this food with money from their own earn- ings, with relief cheques, or directly from the Salvation Army, or the Surplus Marketing administration. Conflict Over Agricultural Policy. As a result of the de- pression and low prices, efforts were made to raise prices by re- ducing production. As a result of rising prices in 1941, some per- sons contended that production should be increased to prevent prices from rising. It has been the AAA policy to restrict production and raise prices. This policy was to continue for 1942 in spite of increased demands for livestock products for export. Although the AAA co- operated with the United States department of agriculture in en- couraging increased livestock production during the fall of 1941, the AAA contracts for 1942 called for continued restricted acre- ages of corn and wheat. Diametrically opposed to the AAA policy was that of the Office of Price Administration (q.v.)* which wanted greater production and low prices. Any price control bill is at cross-purposes with the AAA. 26 AGRICULTURE 240 210 180 150 120 90 60 19 r -+ S>C\T\ V\ 'AGES / A ,.." /-" \ /\ /> / n \ ,< ^ i * V- ,*'** >'s\ \ \ / u ^ " ^\ V FAR k \ M WAGES / / FARM F RICES \ \ ^ Zs PRE-WORLD WAR 1 - 1 i i i I i i i I i i i 00 i i i V? i i i i i i 14 1918 1922 1926 1930 1934 1938 1942 Fig. 9. -INDEX NUMBERS OF FARM AND CITY WAGES AND FARM PRICES, 1914-41. Although farm wages tend to be a compromise between farm prices and city wages, they have followed farm prices more closely than city waget The price control advocates represent the interest of urban con- sumers who desire cheap food and clothing. The interests of the farmer are not represented by either the AAA or the Office of Price Administration. The farmer wants neither low production and high prices nor high production and low prices. He wants high production and high prices. If it were not for the AAA or the Office of Price Administration, he might get both in 1942. High production and high prices would be more to the advantage of both farmers and consumers than any other combination. The interests of the farmer have been represented most truly by the agricultural elements of congress and the United States department of agriculture. The farm bloc in congress has attempted to safeguard the farmer by insisting on what appeared at the time to be fair levels for agricultural price ceilings. The United States department of agriculture has agreed with the farm bloc on the 110% of parity ceilings. It has also gone as far as it can in advocating increased production without conflict- ing with the AAA. The formerly small agency, the Surplus Marketing administra- tion of the AAA, was occupied with purchasing farm products for relief groups. In 1941 this agency expanded rapidly into an organization to purchase food for Britain under the lend-lease program. Prior to 1941, expenditures for relief aggregated $50,- 000,000 to $75,000,000. Late in 1941, expenditures for lend-lease were at a rate of about $500,000,000 a year. Expenditures in 1942 were expected to reach $1,000,000,000. For 1942 United States farmers were urged to increase their total production about 7% over that of 1941. This was necessary to provide Britain with the food that it would need. During World War I, Great Britain imported dairy, poultry and pork products from Denmark and the Netherlands. In 1942, this would be im- possible. Most of the increases called for were not in crop pro- duction but rather in the conversion of good crops into livestock and livestock products. TabU VI. /ntorufa* Fxporfi of Food for 1942 from fhe (M/ftcf Stofe* Commodity Exports Increase of 1942 over normal Increase as a per cent of 1036-740 production Actual Average 1936 to IQ41 Goal 1942 Livestock Products Milk, million pounds -208 3 101 "5 -155 54 *5 20 t - x 3 4-3 410 5,io8 504 1,350 640 - -So 30 10 25 4 6 I.O 441 -f S,3i6 + 501 f 1,240 + 425 + 15 24 - is !i r 3<3 f 31 +++++ 1 ++++ 1+ Eggs, million dozens Pork, million pounds Lard, million pounds Beef and veal, million pounds . Pood crops Wbeat, million bushels . Corn, million bushels . . . Rice, million bushels Dry beans, million batrs .... Canned vegetables million case* Canned fruit, million cases . . Nonfood cropt Cotton, million bales Tobacco, million pounds Exports of dairy products desired for 1942 are the equivalent of 5,000,000,000 Ib. of milk (Table VI). These exports of cheese, butter, canned milk, etc., are equivalent to about one pint of whole milk for each Briton, every three days. The expected shipments of eggs were expected to be about 500,000,000 doz., or three eggs per person per week. It was hoped that the U.S.A. could supply Britain with 1,350,- 000,000 Ib. of pork and 640,000,000 Ib. of lard in 1942. This is equivalent to about two-thirds Ib. of pork and one-third Ib. of lard per week per capita. Because the United States eats more beef than it produces, it would not be able to ship Great Britain any beef except at the expense of domestic consumption or from imports from other countries. From the standpoint of U.S. agriculture, supplying millions with these products meant an increase in production over the 1936-40 average. The increase in milk and dairy products was 5% of normal production. Foreign Trade. Since about 1920, the exports of 'farm prod- ucts per capita have been more than halved (fig. 7). This was due primarily to a decline in farm production per capita. Even with the five good crops since 1936, the production per capita has not reached that of the '208 or of the World War I period. Prior to the } 2os, the United States produced more food than it con- sumed, and exports were large. Since then, food production has not kept pace with population, and exports declined and imports rose. Since 1923, the United States, the world's greatest and most efficient food producer, has continuously imported more food than it exported (fig. 8). Agricultural exports for 1940-41 aggregated about $350,000,- ooo, the lowest in 69 years. Agricultural exports have not only declined in terms of dollars, but have declined even faster rela- tive to exports of other commodities. The 1940-41 agricultural exports declined to 9% of the total exports and to 3% of agri- cultural income (fig. 8). The decline in exports of agricultural products up to 1941 was due to (a) the long-time tendency for population to overtake food production, and (b) the short-time effects of the blockade of Europe. Most of the short-time re- duction was in the exports of cotton. The riext most important reductions due to the blockade were in exports of fruits, tobacco, grains, feeds and lard. Exports of many other farm products increased. For instance, evaporated and condensed milk increased from $3,000,000 in 1939-40 to $20,000,000 in 1940-41. Cheese exports rose $400,000 to $4,700,000. However cheese exports were still only slightly more than imports of cheese. Exports of eggs rose from $1,000,- ooo to $4,500,000. Although the increases in exports of these live- Flo. 10. INDEX NUMBERS OF VALUE OF FARM LAND PER -VCRE IN IOWA, MISSISSIPPI AND PENNSYLVANIA, 1912-41. During World War I, land values rose much higher In Iowa and Mississippi than in Pennsylvania. With deflation, land values fell least In Pennsylvania 50 1912 1917 1922 1927 1932 1937 1942 AGRICULTURE 27 stock products were relatively great compared with former ex- ports, they were small compared with the decreases in exports of cotton, tobacco, fruits and grains. Likewise, these increases in exports of livestock products were generally small compared with their production. From 1939-40 to 1940-41, the total imports of agricultural products rose about 20%. Imports of cheese, olive oil, wines and tung oil declined about one-half. Imports of wool trebled. Im- ports of cocoa increased about 60%; hides, 50% and molasses, 35%. Most of these changes were due to wartime conditions. In 1940-41 agricultural imports were more than four times exports. About one-half of these imports were products which did not compete with American agriculture, but the other half did. When only farm products produced in the United States are considered, that nation has normally sent abroad a very small excess of $300,000,000 in net exports. This has been about 3% of the total United States farm production. When all agricultural products raised throughout the world are considered, the United States has had net imports of about 3% of United States production. Net imports of food have averaged about 5% of United States food production. World Conditions and American Agriculture. The British attempt to blockade Europe and the axis efforts to blockade Great Britain increased the dangers of ocean transportation and raised transportation rates. This has had two types of effect on Amer- ican agriculture. First, the exports of farm products, which were previously large, such as cotton, tobacco and fruit, have greatly declined. The largest part of the previous market, continental Europe, has been shut off. Secondly, exports of certain foods, such as livestock products, have increased. Great Britain, which in peacetime obtained these foodstuffs from continental Europe and from distant parts of the world, was forced to buy from the United States because of (i) the blockade of Europe and (2) the shortage of shipping space. Farm Population. The total population of the continental United States increased from 4,000,000 in 1790 to 132,000.000 in 1940. During this century and a half, the proportion of persons living on farms or engaged in agriculture declined from about 85% to about 25%. The farm population increased steadily until 1910 although at no time did it increase as fast as the total population. From 1910 to 1930, the rate of increase in total population slowed, and farm population actually declined about 6%. Increasing effi- ciency enabled farmers to feed an increasing urban population. From 1930 to 1940, the total population increased, but the farm population remained unchanged. Normally, there has been a movement of population from farms to cities. Cities have needed an influx of farm population for two reasons. First, industrial activity in the United States has increased rapidly; and second, city people have not borne enough children to reproduce themselves, let alone to increase the population. In 1940 the urban population produced only 74% of the number of chil- dren required to maintain a stable population (Table VII). Farmers have exported a surplus of population to the cities for two reasons: (T) agricul- ture has not grown so fast as industry; and (2) farmers have raised more Table Vll.-Nef Reproduction Rofei (%) for ffo UnifW Sfotot Group 1930 1940 Urban 88 74 Farm rural Total ISO in 3 children than needed to reproduce their kind. In 1940 the rural farm popu- lation produced 44% more children than was required to maintain a stable rural farm population. Farmers have always produced a surplus of replace- ments because: . , 1. The cost of raising children was comparatively low. 2. Children were relatively useful on farms. 3. A relatively high percentage of the population was married, and a relatively low proportion was gainfully employed in other industries. 4. Married people living on farms average younger ages than those in cities. INDEX 110 80 50 1891 1901 1911 1921 1931 1941 Fig. 11. INDEX NUMBERS OF TAXES PAID PER ACRE AND PRICES OF FARM PRODUCTS, 1891-1940. Taxes have risen relative to prices. The great depression of the early '30s was the only force sufficient to reduce farm taxei materially In 1940 the excess farm births were not sufficient to compensate for the deficiency in urban births, and the U.S.A. produced only 96% of the chil- dren required to maintain a stable population (Table VII). In 1930, after several years of urban prosperity, the United Stales was producing m% of the children required to maintain a stable population. The decline from m% in 1930 to 96% in 1940 was probably due to the effect of the pro- longed depression. Birth rates declined during this period both in cities and on farms. The deficit in the city birth rate increased from 12% to 26%, and the surplus in the farm birth rate decreased from 59% to 44%. The United States department of agriculture estimates the movement of persons to and from farms. During the urban prosperity of the '205, the net farm export to cities was 630,000 persons per year. During the next decade, the net movement away from farms averaged only 218,000 persons per year. The average annual movement away from farms during the '205, 630,000, was accompanied by a decline of about 1,450,000 in the farm population. During the '305 the net movement declined materially, and the farm popu- lation did not change. The surplus of farm population during the '205 was 485,000 per year. If only this number had been sent to the cities, farm population would have been stable. During the *2os, the surplus all went to the cities, and more went along in addition because in ban times were good. However, during the '305, only the surplus went to cities, because during the urban depression there were few opportunities in cities and the cost of living in cities was high relative to that on farms. In i94r high wages in war and other city industries attracted large num- bers from farms. Military service also reduced the farm population. It is probable that at least i.ooo.ooo persons left farms for other work during I94i. Farm Wages. During Oct. 1941 the average hired man in the United States received $37-45 per month with board, the highest wage since 1930. Farm wages with board varied from $16 in South Carolina to $62 in Cali- fornia. Farm wages were generally highest in the northwest and in the Rocky mountain and Pacific states and lowest in the south. During the 12 months, Oct. 1940 to Oct. 1941, farm wage rates rose 28%. Over the last 30 years, farm wages have been affected by two factors. city wages and farm prices (fig. 9). The upward trend in city wages, plus the competition for labour between cities and farms, have resulted in some rise in farm wages relative to farm prices. However, farm wages have fol- lowed the major fluctuations in farm prices. During the depression of the early '305. farm wages, which declined 60%, were more flexible than city wages, which declined only 32%. During sharp rises in farm prices, farm wages follow with only a few months' lag. From 1916 to 1917 farm prices rose about 50% and wages 25% (Table VIII). During 1918 wages rose to the level of farm prices In 1917. By the end of the war, both prices and wages had about doubled. Table VI 1 1. -form Waat and Farm Prrce*, World Wort \ and // Year World War 1 Year World War 11 Farm wages Farm prices Farm wajjcs Farm prices IOH 1915 1916 1917 IQl8 - 1919 100 102 Hi 140 7S 205 100 07 117 173 300 311 ' 1930 100 102 119* TOO 105 130* 1940 - 1941 ^Preliminary. During the first two years of World War II, farm wages again responded to the advance in farm prices. In 1941 farm prices were about one-third higher than the 1939 level; and wages, one-fifth higher (Table VIII). Farm land The total value of farm land in the United States is about $35,000,000,000. The farm land between the Rocky and Appalachian moun- tains, north of the Ohio river, is worth almost one-half the total. The farms of the south are worth about $10,000,000,000. The farm lands east of the Appalachians and in the Pacific states are worth about the same, more than $3,000,000,000 in each of the regions referred to. The mountain states, which occupy a large area, are worth about $2,000,000,000. 28 AGRICULTURE AGUIRRE CERDA, PEDRO From prc-World War I to 1920 the United States experienced a spectacu- lar rise in prices of farm products. A part of this rise was reflected in the price of farm land. Farm land in Iowa, Mississippi, and several other cen- tral and southern states, doubled in price (iig. 10). In eastern United States, land prices rose 30% to 50%; and in the far west, about 50%. From 1920 to 1933 prices of both farm products and farm land fell dis- astrously. Iowa land prices fell more than 70%; and Mississippi land prices fell almost as much. On the other hand, land values in the eastern states fell only 20% to 40%. Relative to their long-time relationship, Iowa land was higher than Penn- sylvania land in 1920, but the reverse was true in 1933- From 1933 to 1941 prices of farm real estate in the United States gen- erally rose. Although land values in the Dakotas and Nebraska fell still r further, values in the eastern part of the corn belt and the southern states rose as much as 40% to 50%. In general, land values in Atlantic and Pacific coastal areas rose 5% to 15%. From March i, 1940 to March 1941 land values in the United States changed very little, rising only i%. Southern land values east of the Mississippi rose the most, about 3%. It is probable that land values rose slightly more during the summer of 1941 when prices of farm products rose rapidly. Farm Taxation. Farm real estate bears most of the direct taxes paid by farmers. About two-thirds of farm taxes are real estate taxes. Personal property taxes represent about 10%; gasoline taxes and automobile licences about 25%. Other taxes are negligible, about 2% to 3% of the total. For at least a century, farm taxes in the United States have steadily risen. This long-time increase has been due to expanding expenditures by state and local governments. With passing time, people tend to supply themselves collectively with greater and greater amounts of services. This tendency has persisted throughout most parts of the world. Roads have been modernized with the coming of the automobile. Schools have become larger with more instruction given and better attendance, and school teach- ers have more training and receive higher salaries. Although farm taxes have risen with passing time, they have been some- what related to changes in farm prices. For example, from the Civil War to the '903, farm prices fell and taxes rose very little. From the '903 to 1914, both prices and taxes almost doubled (fig. n). During and imme- diately following World War I, prices more than doubled and so did taxes. During the '208, farm prices fell, but taxes continued to rise slowly, With the great depression of the early '308, farm prices were halved and taxes were reduced by one-third. This was the first time for which records are available that farm taxes were materially reduced. Farm taxes paid in 1941 were slightly above the low point of 1935 but about 30% below the peak of 1930. Form Credit. In 1941 the federal government and semi-governmental agencies had outstanding loans to agriculture upwards of $4,000,000,000, about one-half of which were mortgages on farms. During the year ending June 30, 1941 there was an increase in prices paid to farmers for farm products, and delinquent loans decreased about one-fifth. On June 30, 1940 delinquent Federal Land bank mortgage loans were 19% of outstanding mortgages, compared with 16% June 30, 1941- Altogether, there are about $7,000,000,000 of mortgages on farms in the United States. Individuals and the government each have 40% of the total loans outstanding, life in- surance companies, about 13%; and commercial banks and joint stock land banks, the remainder. Since 1930 there has been a steady decline in farm mortgage foreclosure sales in the United States. Foreclosure sales declined from 93 per 1,000 farms mortgaged in 1934 to 14 in 1940. Because of high prices of farm products, foreclosures in 1941 were still less. In addi- tion to land mortgages, the government lends funds to co-operatives. Sept. 1941 there were $105,000,000 outstanding. Co-operatives borrowed almost twice as much money in 1941 as in 1940- The government also makes short- term loans to farmers for various types of production credit. These loans aggregated about $1,000,000,000 in 194*- The amount of mortgage loans made in the nine months ending Sept. 30, 1941 was only 3.3% of the mortgages outstanding; whereas, in the case of loans to co-operatives and production loans to farmers, the loans were a little more than the outstanding loans. The Farm Security administration was organized to assist farmers who could not obtain credit through other agencies. They lend funds for a 4O-year period at 3% for practically the total value of the real estate and chattels. They make loans for the operation of a farm and its purchase. Most of these loans are in the south to aid tenants to become landowners and to^aid small landowners to make a living. There were in 1941 about 13,000 loans, averaging about $5,800. Farmers also received government credit through crop and feed loans, rural electrification loans, and commodity loans under the AAA. Probably at no other time in history have farmers had the credit facilities that were available in 1941. (Sec FARM MORTGAGES; COMMODITY CREDIT CORPORATION.) Experiment Stations. Since agriculture is an industry with small units, the individual farmer cannot carry on research work concerning the many problems of agriculture, nor even on those peculiar to his farm. For this reason, the United States and most other countries of the world have 'de- veloped experiment stations to study problems of pure and applied science in agriculture. For three-quarters of a century there has been a gradual expansion in the number of such agencies and in the type of work undertaken. In 1941 there were agricultural experiment stations in the 48 states, Alaska, Hawaii and Puerto Rito. These institutions have about 4,600 workers conducting research on more than 8,500 projects. The work costs about $21,000,000, one-thfrd of which is supported by federal appropriations and two-thirds by state funds. The average cost of this work is about $3 per farm. (F.A. PE.; K. R. B.) Great Britain. The system of state control of British farming, exercised through the agency of county war executive committees, was continued during 1941 and was extended to embrace almost every section of the in- dustry. The general objective remained unchanged; this was to increase the output of essential food crops especially wheat, oats, potatoes, beet sugar and the more productive and nutritious vegetables along with milk and other dairy products. The means used, which were many, included the following: First, a considerable area of land that had become derelict was reclaimed. This involved large-scale drainage operations, the clearing of wide areas QJ scrub, the application of mass doses of lime and fertilizers and the use of special plows and other heavy implements of tillage. The necessary dredg- ing and bush-clearing equipment and track-laying tractors were produced in Britain in considerable numbers and others were imported. There were some quite spectacular achievements, and the total result was highly satis- factory. Second, the year's program included the plowing up of a further 2,000,- ooo ac. of grassland for arable cropping. Despite difficult seasonal condi- tions the program was more than completed, thanks largely to the generous supply of tractors and implements from the United States, Canada and Australia. Third, there was an intensive drive to raise the general level of farming by better cultivation combined with the use of increased quantities of lime and fertilizers. There was a greatly increased British output of nitro- gen compounds and of lime, with increased imports of phosphate rock. These fertilizers were offered at low prices in order to encourage their use. Potash was the only fertilizer that was not freely available, and special measures had to be taken to restrict its use to specially deficient soils and to highly responsive crops. The inspection of farms by the war agricultural committees was tightened up; farms were classified as "A," "B" and "C," and the last group was kept under fairly constant supervision. A consider- able number of inefficient farmers were deprived of their farms. Fourth, much thought had to be given to the numbers of larm livestock that the land could maintain under the changed conditions. Apart from the large loss of grazing area and of hay meadow, there was a heavy reduction from about 8,000,000 to about 5,000,000 tons in imports of animal feeding stuffs. Dairy farmers, and also owners of high-class pedigree stock of all kinds were encouraged, by rather liberal allowances of feeding stuffs, to maintain or even to increase the number of their animals. Conversely, the reduction of commercial pig herds and poultry flocks was enforced by reducing food allowances. A further measure was the use of compulsory powers for the slaughter of poor and unhealthy cattle. Finally, there was an intensive campaign for the utilization of many by- products. Surplus grass was converted into silage; considerable quantities of straw were converted into useful fodder by a new method of soda treat- ment; and there was a great development in the collection of town waste, both for stock feeding and for manure. No official estimate was published in 1941 of the actual outcome of all these measures, but it is obvious that they led to a substantial increase in the output of food, and this despite the fact that there was a large trans- ference of man power from agriculture to the armed forces. The loss was partly made good by the employment of women. Seasonal conditions, on balance, were favourable. The winter, for the second successive year, was severe, especially in the north of England and throughout Scotland; the consequence was a small crop of lambs from mountain pastures. Spring was cold and dry, and there was an acute short- age of grass, even in the lowlands, during the early part of May. Spring frosts were severe in some areas, with the consequence of a poor fruit crop. The weather during early summer was, however, favourable and all crops were heavy. Hay was secured under excellent conditions. During July and August heavy rains occurred in the south, and these caused some damage to early grain crops; but conditions in September were favourable for hacvest. The quantity of grain secured was the largest that Great Britain has ever produced, and most of the other essential crops were fully up to average. Britiih Emplrt. The problem of the dominions remained one of market- ing. The greater part of continental Europe, which was in need of large quantities of foodstuffs, was cut off from the world markets. Russia, Spain and Portugal were the only remaining customers. Moreover the length of the haul from Australasia greatly restricted the transport to Europe of the bulkier commodities such as wheat, apples and canned fruit. Third, there was a shortage of refrigerated cargo space, which restricted the amount of perishable food butter, cheese and eggs especially that could be carried through the tropics. Finally, there was a natural reluctance on the part of Britain to accept luxury articles such as empire wines. Some of these problems, however, were on the way to partial solution. Thus Canada's surplus grain was increasingly being converted into bacon. Additional plants for making dried-milk powder were erected in Australia and New Zealand. An increasing proportion of fruit was exported in dried form. Some promising experimental shipments were made of other substi- tute products clarified butterfat (which does not need refrigeration) in place of butter; boned meat in place of whole carcasses (to allow fuller use of refrigerator space) and even minced and dried meat which, carried in ordinary hold space, has a food value per ton about five times as high as that of meat in carcass form. (J. A. S. W.) For agricultural statistics of countries other than the U.S.A.. see the subheading Agriculture in the articles on those countries, also the articles on various crops and agricultural products. (See also ALPALFA; CENSUS, 1940: Occupations; CHEMURGY; CORN; DROUGHT; FARMERS' CO-OPERA- TIVES; FARM INCOME; FARM MACHINERY; FARM MORTGAGES; FERTIL- IZERS; HAY; HORSES; IRRIGATION; LAW; OATS; PRICES; SOIL EROSION AND SOIL CONSERVATION; WHEAT; etc.) Agriculture. U.S. Department of: see GOVERNMENT DE- PARTMENTS AND BUREAUS. Chilean statesman, was born Feb. 6 in Los Andes, Chile. Educated at St. Felipe college and the Pedagogic institute, he taught at the army subofficers' academy in 1900 and began the practice of law in 1904. He was elected deputy to the Chilean AIR CONDITIONING AIR parliament in 1915 and was named minister of education and jus- tice in 1918 and interior minister in 1920. Aguirre Cerda became the candidate of a popular front coalition for president and was elected in 1938 by a slim 4,ooo-vote margin. A champion of social reform, he announced plans for a Chilean new deal to aid the "forgotten man," but the tragic earthquake of Jan. 1939, which razed 20 cities and killed 8,000, compelled him to delay his social legislation in ordr to speed reconstruction. He had served less than half his term as president when he died in Moneda palace in Santiago, after a short illness, Nov. 25. Air PnnHltinninir ^ e a i r " con ditioning sales volume for nil uUIIUIUUlllllg. I94I a g a in exceeded the volume for the previous year by a substantial margin, thus indicating a healthy growth of the industry and an increasing public acceptance for the benefits of air conditioning to comfort and health. This increased sales volume resulted largely from improved products and greater national income. The first half of 1941 showed an abnormally high sales increase. Because of material shortages resulting from the national defense program, this rate of increase was not maintained during the second half of 1941 in comfort air-conditioning equipment, al- though the sale of air conditioning for industrial and process work was maintained at a high rate. The United States continued to be the principal centre of all air-conditioning activity, Although various portions of Latin America were making progress along air-conditioning lines. Air- conditioning developments in the nations at war were more or less shrouded in mystery, although there was indication that various modifications of a complete air-conditioning process had been adopted for certain air-raid shelters and for the blackout type of manufacturing plant. Air-conditioning Technique. During 1941 there were no radical improve- ments in the technique of air conditioning. However, during 1941 various detailed improvements in product design were made, particularly in the small portable type of room cooler and in the small packaged type of cen- tral plant winter air-conditioning unit. Increased attention was given to the benefits of the small forced-circula- tion type of window ventilator for use in office, hotel and apartment rooms, as well as homes. More compact, lower cost and generally reliable window ventilators were available. National Dtfente. The air-conditioning industry was called upon to make substantial contributions to the all-important program of national defense. These contributions applied first to manufacturing plants where for process or for blackout reasons the plant would be quite impractical without the use of air conditioning. Also, in the rapid expansion of housing facilities for defense industry areas, it was shown that small, compact packaged types of central plant winter air conditioners might be applied at costs equal -to or lower than the costs of ordinary and less satisfactory heating systems, and with definite benefits to the occupants of the home. Further, considerable confidential research was under way, working to- ward the improving of the various defense operations for utilizing one or more of the principles of air conditioning. All of this was in addition to the manufacture of primary defense equipment in the "gun, tank and plane" class. Future of Air Conditioning It was indicated that the industry would con- tinue in 1942 to make important contributions to national defense on essen- tial equipment. This meant that 1942 sales figures would show a reduction in air conditioning of the purely comfort type, but a substantial increase in air conditioning as applied to defense housing and to industrial and process work. It was indicated that forced changes in plans and designs, due to certain material shortages, would in the long run produce benefits in cost reduction and improved performance which would give the purchaser more for his dollar. (See also PUBLIC HEALTH ENGINEERING.) (L. HA.) Air Forces of the World. U.S. Army. The year 1941 saw accelerated the great- est peacetime expansion of the army air forces in United States history. During the fiscal year 1939 congress appropriated $73,- 556,972; appropriation for the fiscal year 1940 was $243,631,388; for the fiscal year 1941 appropriation was $3,892,769,570. , The fiscal year 1941 was a marked increase above the 1940 pro- gram, begun in 1939 and calling for 5,500 aeroplanes under the 2 5 -group program, including 5 heavy bombardment groups, 6 FORCES 29 medium bombardment groups, 2 light bombardment groups, 2 pur- suit fighter groups, 7 pursuit interceptor groups and 3 composite groups, with 4,663 officers and 43,337 enlisted men. Between this and the 54-group program there was a jump to 41 combat groups, with 10,846 officers and 89,672 enlisted men. The first aviation objective followed, including 56 combat groups and 6 transport groups, with 13,575 officers and 145,000 enlisted men. This program embraced 6,004 aeroplanes; 4,006 combat types in organizations, 1,998 in reserve. Orders were placed for aircraft far above stated requirements, to expand facilities and anticipate British needs and air force expansion. During 1941 the air corps ordered and requisitioned approximately 28,500 aeroplanes. Pilot training rate was expanded to 30,000 a year and rate of training enlisted technicians to 100,000 annually. Technical schools were increased by facilities at Biloxi, Miss.; Wichita Falls, Tex.; and Ft. Logan, Colo. The month of June 1941 found these other schools: primary (civilian) 29; basic (air corps) 7; advanced (air corps) 11; and special 13, including technical, gun- nery, navigation and bombardier. With air power universally recognized as a determining factor In modern warfare in which "so many owed so much to so few," the war department gave the air forces distinctive status. An as- sistant secretary of war for air was appointed. Also appointed was a deputy chief of staff for air, in addition, chief of the army air forces, controlling the air force combat command (formerly GHQ air force) and the air corps. A new air council included the assistant secretary of war for air (ex-ofiicio), chief of the army air forces (president), chief of the air force combat command, chief of the war plans division of the war department general staff and chief of the air corps. Providing close air support for army ground units, 5 air support commands were created, including observation aviation, light bombers, dive bombers, photography planes, gliders and air trans- port for parachute troops. The ist, 2nd, 3rd and 4th air support commands operate with the respective field armies, and the 5th with the armoured force. (See also ARMIES OF THE WORLD.) (H.H.A.) U.S. Navy. The Naval Aeronautical organization on July 19, 1940, was authorized by U.S. congress to increase its strength to 15,000 aeroplanes. During the fiscal year 1941 the bureau of aeronautics directed its efforts toward the early completion of this program. A parallel training and base facilities program was established to support the increased procurement plan. At the end of the fiscal year, June 30, 1941, there were 3,956 aeroplanes on hand, with 6,054 <> n order. All combat ships of the navy, with the exception of destroyers and submarines, carry a complement of aeroplanes, ranging in number from two or three on the battleships, to approximately 75 on each aircraft carrier. The type of aircraft carried is determined by the mission of the surface ship to which it is attached. From the requirements of these missions, four basic types of aeroplanes have evolved : 1. The fighting plane, whose primary mission is attacking enemy aircraft with gunfire. 2. Torpedo and bombing planes, including the dive bomber, designed to attack heavy enemy vessels or shore bases. 3. Scouting and observation planes, the eyes of the fleet, designed with emphasis on speed, range, gunnery defense and communication facilities. 4. The patrol plane, the largest type of plane in service, is self-protecting and carries out long-range scouting flights. Surface ships supporting aircraft were modernized in the light of lessons learned during the early months of World War II. and additional ships were added for the support of naval aircraft, including 18 aircraft carriers on hand, under construction or authorized. The carriers in commission in 1941 were: the "Yorktown," "Enterprise," "Ranger/' "Wasp," "Hornet/' "Lexington and "Saratoga." 30 AIR FORCES Future carriers, in order of their construction, would be: the "Essex," "Bon Homme Richard/' "Intrepid," "Kearsarge," "Franklin," "Hancock," "Cabot," "Bunker Hill," "Oriskany," "Randolph" and "Ticonderoga." To expedite the training program, maximum use was made of existing facilities, and on March 18, 1941, a directive was issued for the additional shore stations required. Shore facilities of the naval air arm, as of Oct. 1941, comprised 29 naval air stations in commission and four under construction. In addition, 16 U.S. naval reserve aviation bases were in commission, providing elim- ination flight training for prospective naval aviation cadets. The training of navy aircraft personnel necessarily was co- ordinated with procurement and expansion of shore facilities. In June 1940 the only existing naval aviation training centre was at Pensacola, Fla. Pilot entry rate was 100 students per month. By July 1941 the navy had three additional training stations at Jacksonville, Fla., Corpus Christi, Tex,, and Miami, Fla., with a combined entry rate of 800 students per month directed at the goal of 17,000 trained pilots for naval aviation. The training of enlisted personnel, mechanics, metal smiths, ordnance men and radio men reached a rate of 12,000 men every four months. Concurrent with the expansion program, experimentation in glider usage was conducted and legislation authorized a lighter- than-air program of 48 nonrigid airships with shore facilities. Plane performance and design progressed, with emphasis on manoeuvrability, speed, range and armament protection. Effort in every field was expended to increase the general efficiency of naval aviation. (J. H. Ts.) The World. 1 jRw^w.Throughout 1940 the theatre of action for air warfare was largely restricted to western Europe. With Russia inactive and with the late 1939 campaigns to the east com- pleted, the entire strength of the German luftwaffe was thrown against the British Isles. That effort failed to win the war for Hitler. During 1941, as new fronts were established in an effort to accomplish what direct attack could not do, the war in the air spread over the entire world. As the year ended, the R.A.F. was in action against Mussolini's air force and the luftwaffe in North Africa; Russian fighters were beating off German bomb- ing attacks from the Arctic ocean to the Black sea; British and American air patrols were sweeping the north Atlantic, and American and Japanese squadrons were fighting for air supremacy from Honolulu to Hongkong. CompoTof/ve Air Force Strength of Chief Warring Powers* (Combat Units) ALLIES Axis No. of Planes No. of Planes United States 3,000-5,000 Germany 5,500-8,500 Great Britain 4,500-5,500 lapan 5,ooo? Russia ? Italy 1,500-3,000 China 100-200 Hungary 400-000 Netherlands Indies 500-600 Finland . Bulgaria Rumania Taken from New York Times of Dec. 14, ig4i. "Corrected for known losses up until Dec. 12. 200-300 100-300 500-700 Twice during 1941 the shifting pattern of international alli- ances upset the balance of air power. In June German aggres- sion made Russia an active axis foe rather than acquiescent part' ner. In December Japan made its bid for supremacy in the Pa- cific, Interest was therefore focused on two air forces that pre- viously had played only minor parts in the war in the air. Russian aviation had been an enigma for many years. Few American or British observers were permitted more than a glimpse of its fields and factories. It was known that large numbers of aircraft had been built during the middle 19305. It was known 'All assertions or opinion* contained in this section of this article are the private ones of the writer and are not to be conn trued a* official or reflecting the views of any govern- ment service. also that thousands of pilots and parachutists had been trained. Soviet planes arid pilots put up a fair showing in Spain, but were ultimately overwhelmed by the superior numbers and per- formance of German and Italian squadrons. It was generally believed, however, that the quality of the ma- teriel and personnel was below par, and serious doubts existed as to the ability of soviet industry to turn out replacements on a scale commensurate with modern war. r But from the meagre accounts corning out of the Russian cam- paign up to Jan. i, 1942, Russia's fighting squadrons were giving a good account of themselves. Germany obviously underestimated Russian air strength when it made up the timetables for its ad- vance on Moscow and Leningrad. As usual, claims of losses on both sides may well be discounted. Germany claimed that Russia had lost more than 50% of its initial fighting strength. How much it cost the luftwaffe in the process was unknown, but it was cer- tain that the campaign cut deeply into Hitler's first-line planes and pilots. Although large numbers of soviet aeroplanes were obsolete in 1941, some of the newer fighter and bomber designs stacked up with those of the rest of the world. The latest fighters were re- ported to be in the 3$o-m.p.h. to 40o-m.p.h. class. The new 1-26 was said to resemble the British Spitfire in appearance and in performance. Other fighters included the two-place monoplane 1-2 1 with two i,300-h.p. engines, armed with two 20-mm. cannons and six machine guns; the single-seater 1-20 with one i,3oo-h.p. engine, one 20-mm. cannon and six guns; and the I-i8 single- seater with a i,25o-h.p. engine and the same armament as the 1-20. In reserve as second-line fighters were the I-i6 and I-iy single- seaters of about 8oo-h.p. which were used in Spain and later on the Manchoukuoan border. A number of dive bombers and medium bombers were built under American licences. A modification of the old Boeing P-i2 fighter with a Russian-built Cyclone engine was fitted for dive bombing and a considerable number of American-built Vultee attack planes were modified for that purpose. In the medium bomber field the Martin and Boeing influence was evident. Few details of performance were known, but photo- graphs showed that these types were thoroughly modernized. They should have been able to perform with corresponding types of the luftwaffe. For example, the CKB-26 medium bomber with two i,ooo-h.p. M-63 engines was in service with many squadrons. It could do about 250 m.p.h. and had a range of approximately 2,500 mi. witn 1,000 Ib. of bombs. A newer and sleeker-looking machine, the DB-3A, had two liquid-cooled engines of better than 1,000 h.p. It was used both as a medium bomber and as a two- place fighter. Performance details were lacking. In heavy bombers, the soviet air force appeared to be deficient. It had a number of very large and very slow six-engine machines of a type long since outmoded. Some of them were almost as large as the American 6-19 bomber. Some were equipped to transport light tanks. For many years the Russians had been interested in aircraft for extremely long ranges, as witness the several flights across the north pole to the United States, but few authoritative reports were forthcoming of concentrated raids by heavy Russian bombers against German industry. Because of the necessity of defending thousands of miles of coast line, Russia had a large but unknown number of naval air- craft, mostly of small patrol types. Since 1930 a great deal of experience had been gained with these machines, as well as with land types, in arctic operations. There was no doubt that the soviet air forces had more experience in winter flying than any air force in the world a factor that might carry considerable weight in the campaign against the Germans during the winter of 1941-42. It was well known that Russia had thousands of trained AIR FORCES 31 paratroops and large numbers of troop transports, although no extensive use of this tactic had been reported, The Soviets also pioneered in the transportation of troops by glider. But again, no actual demonstration of strength in this field had been made by the close of 1941. Japan. The sudden eruption of Japanese aggression in the Pacific focused attention on another air force about which com- paratively little was known. In spite of the fact that Japan scored initial successes in surprise air attacks against Hawaii and the Philippines, there was no question but that its air forces, both naval and military, were second-rate. Some of its medium-class bombers were of reasonably modern design. The Nakajima IQS used by the army appeared to be in a class with American B-i8s. The Mitsubishi Soyokaze twin-engine naval bombers showed a de- cided German Junkers (JU-86K) influence. Neither of these machines, however, was very fast possibly 250 mi. an hour. Among the best of the bombers (a machine that probably was used against Manila from bases in Formosa and in China) the Mitsu- bishi 92 bore close resemblance to the Martin 166 long since con- sidered obsolete by the U.S. army air forces. This machine had two i,ooo-h.p. radial engines, and probably cruised at around 250 m.p.h. Japanese light bombers, of which the Mitsubishi 97 was typical, were single-engine two-place monoplanes resembling closely the outmoded U.S. Northrop A- 17 attack ship. Whether or not the Japanese air forces had any large four-engine bombers was problematical. The Japanese government purchased the Douglas DC-4 commercial prototype and the manufacturing rights. A bomber version of this large machine might have been built, but no actual evidence came to hand. It was known, how- ever, that the Japanese navy had a number of large four-engine flying boat patrol bombers, somewhat similar to earlier U.S. Sikor- sky 8-42 clippers. Ships of this type might have taken part in the bombing of Hawaii, although direct evidence was lacking. As far as was known, Japan had no fighters that compared with modern British, German or American machines. Nothing like the Spitfires or Hurricanes or U.S. P-39S or P-40S appeared. The fighters operating from carrier decks were similar in appearance and probably in performance to machines that were designed about 1936. It would seem probable that shore-based fighter squadrons in Japan were equipped with more modern machines, but up to the end of 1941 no direct contact had been made with them. In view of alliances with Germany and Italy, it would be a fair assump- tion that new German designs or actual German and Italian air- craft had been supplied to the Japanese forces in Japan. It was well known that German officers were instructing Japanese squad- rons in the latest fighting tactics. In the first few days after the attack on Pearl Harbor it was popularly supposed that German pilots manned many of the Japa- nese aircraft. That assumption soon proved untenable. Although there was little doubt that the major strategy was mapped out on the Wilhelmstrasse, the actual execution was carried out by Japa- nese naval pilots in Japanese naval planes. Strategists had been prone to underrate Japanese aviation because of the comparatively poor showing that had been made in China. Possibly the contrast between performances in China and against U.S. possessions in the Pacific might be accounted for partly by the fact that Chinese operations were in the hands of the Japanese army, and the latter were conducted wholly by the navy. Technical training of Japa- nese personnel ranked with that of most navies of the world. It might be argued that their naval aviation was better than that of their army -only the future could prove or disprove the point. Italy. Italy's disastrous campaign in Greece and in north Africa in the latter half of 1940 cost Mussolini a high percentage ** hie *< f/*rr AS a result, Italian air activity during 1941 was not outstanding. Army pilots were continuously engaged against the R.A.F. in Africa, and in late September, a mass tor- pedoplane attack against a large convoy in the Mediterranean was claimed by Rome to have been highly successful, but was dis- counted in London. During 1941, however, Italian designers a v nd builders were not idle. The country had some first-rate men and some first-rate plants. Indications were that a nirtnber of new fighters, bombers and torpedo carriers, of a calibre to be reckoned with, would ap- pear on Italo-axis fronts in 1942. The new fighters were largely in the "hush-hush" class. Photo- graphs of only one or two came to the U.S.A. but they had all the earmarks of modernity with a strong Germanic flavour. The Reggione Re2Ooi, for example, was a single-engine single-seater monoplane of excellent appearance. It exhibited the Italian trend away from radial air-cooled engines to the liquid-cooled in-line power plant for fighters. The ducted radiator treatment matched the best British or American practice. Certain new designs with extension shaft drives similar to those of the U.S. Bell Airacobra were rumoured. The general trend seemed to be toward rela- tively light single-seaters with great fire power. In the bomber field, a number of new machines came out into the open. A few, like the Fiat B.S.A., were two-engined. Some, of which the Savoia-Machetti 84 and Piaggio 23R were typical, clung to the three-engine arrangement which had almost disappeared elsewhere. Four-engine "heavies" which resembled U.S. Boeing Flying Fortresses were in production. The Piaggio P-50 and P-io8 were in this class. They were fitted with engines in the 1,200- to i,35o-h.p. range. A secret twin-engine dive bomber, probably similar to the Breda 88, was said to be under test. The Italian navy was taught a costly lesson by the British at Taranto. After that disaster it redoubled its efforts in the development of torpedo-carrying seaplanes. Several new types were in the offing fast ships capable of carrying one or two torpedoes for long distances. The Fiat RS-I4 was a twin-engine torpedo bomber. The Savoia-Machetti SM-94 had three engines. With Russia's air forces barely holding their own on the eastern front, and with the weight of fresh Italian and Japanese squad- rons on the axis side of the balance, increased production of better planes for the Allies was of paramount importance. The war might be won or lost in the aircraft factories as much as in the air. Great Britain. In the early weeks of 1941, after a long series of destructive raids against British industry, there was some reasonable doubt as to Britain's ability to maintain aircraft production rates in competition with the German factories. Two things turned the tide. One, the relief of pressure from air attack due to the opening of the Russian front in June, and two, the increasing weight of American industry behind Britain's air effort. In the early months of 1941 that effect was possibly more psychological than real, but as the year grew older, in- creasing numbers of American-built planes appeared on R.A.F. aerodromes from the Scottish moors to the sands of North Africa. Day and night, winter and summer of 1941, an ever-growing stream of bombers winged across the north Atlantic, and every convoy from American shores for British possessions carried, in its holds and on its decks, replacements for R.A.F. squadrons. The list of U.S.-built aircraft serving with the R.A.F. in 1941 is impressive. In addition to hundreds of trainers of all types fur- nished to Canada and to Britain, the following were on R.A.F. rosters: Fighters Bell Airacobra, Brewster Buffalo, Curtiss Kitty- hawk, Curtiss Tomahawk, Curtiss Mohawk, Douglas Havoc, Grum- man Martlet, Lockheed Lightning and North American Mus- tang. Bombers Boeing Flying Fortress (four-engine), Brewster Bermuda, Consolidated Catalina (flying boat), Consolidated Lib- MILITARY "FLYING WING" demonstrated at Hawthorne, Calif., In Oct. 1941. It has no fuselage or tail surface THE BRISTOL BEAUFIGHTER, equipped with a radio locator in its nose, be- came a potent British weapon against German night raiders in 1941 THE DOUGLAS B-19, largest bomber In the world, as it was rolled out of the factory at Santa Monica, Calif., to undergo Its first test flight, June 27, 1941. Close by is a standard-sized civilian transport plane 1 DARK GOGGLES worn by night-fighting pilots of the R.A.F. to ac- custom them to seeing in the dark LOCKHEED HUDSON BOMBERS lined up at Floyd Bennett field, Brooklyn, before shipment to Britain in the spring of 1941 AIR FORCES 33 erator (four-engine), Curtiss Cleveland, Douglas Digby, Douglas Boston, Douglas Nomad, Lockheed Hudson, Martin Maryland, Martin Baltimore, Vega Ventura and Vought Chesapeake. Prac- tically all of these machines were counterparts of production types for the U.S. army and navy. They were of the latest U.S. production designs and were fitted out with the best equipment U.S. factories knew how to build. The timing of the Japanese at- tack against the United States in early December was undoubtedly set by Germany in an effort to stem the flow of aeroplanes and other supplies to Britain after the failure of the submarine and aerial blockade to pinch them off in the Atlantic. Before the out- break of the war in the Pacific, statistically minded aviation ob- servers estimated that the combined production rates of the United States and Great Britain in aeroplanes and engines would be in a fair way to match the probable output of axis factories by the spring of 1942. This did not mean necessarily that the total air strength of the Anglo-American air forces would then be at parity with the axis powers. It must be remembered that Germany and Italy (and even Japan) had secured a lead of several years, both in planes and pilots. It seemed likely, however, that with the accelera- tion in U.S. industry, and assuming that the German situation did not change materially, the fall of 1942, or at latest, the spring of 1943, should see air superiority shifted to the side of the Allies. Whether this shift would occur sooner or later depended to a great extent upon the situation in Russia. In spite of the fact that Russia was an ally for more than six months, very little was known of its potential contributions to the production pic- ture. Whether or not the factories were in a position to replace soviet losses without drawing too heavily upon the already over- taxed production facilities of Britain and America remained to be seen. It was, perhaps, too much on the optimistic side to ex- pect that any surplusage of machines or motors would be avail- able for Allied use. The most that could be hoped was that Rus- sian industry could replace its own losses. Losses. Statements of losses to enemy ships or aircraft during wartime are always subject to considerable question. In mass air fighting it is ex- tremely difficult to keep track of enemy planes shot down. There is always fc tendency to overestimate on one side and to understate on the other. Ex- perience has indicated, however, that such statements by the British are reasonably reliable. With these reservations in mind then, the following are the figures Riven out by the British air ministry covering losses in combat and by anti-aircraft fire from the beginning of the war in Sept. 1939 to Nov. 9, 1941 (not including the losses in the Russian campaign): Aeroplanes lost by the axis air forces 7.458 Aeroplanes lost by the imperial air forces 3,596 Personnel losses by the axis air forces 20,565 Personnel losses by the imperial air forces 10,295 Performance Next to high output, improved performance for all types of aircraft was the continuous objective of designers on both sides. But they were in 1941 approaching performance ceilings that were going to be extremely difficult to break through. Fighter speeds, for example, had been pushed slowly upward by the application of power and more power, but seemed by the end of 1941 to be levelling off at somewhere over 400 mi. an hour. Until some radical departure in design was to put iu an appear- ance, speeds much above that figure would probably cost too much in en- gine power to be practical for military aircraft. In spite of the fact that the output of the best aeroplane engines advanced after 1939 from 1,200 to close to 2,000 h.p., the advance in speeds was not anything like com- mensurate. Most of the power went for carrying more and bigger guns, more ammunition and better armour. The big drive was to fly at higher levels. Where air strategists in 1940 mapped out campaigns at 25,000 ft., the talk in 1941 was of 35,ooo to 40,000 ft, Here again physical limitations impose tremendous dimculties. With air pressures at 40,000 ft. only one-quarter of sea-level values, the problem of supercharging men and motors is complicated and difficult, In addition, the effects of low pressures and low temperatures on the operation of ignition systems, radio seta, machine guns and other auxiliaries bring up new problems that have heretofore been dormant. In this connection, the behaviour of American-built Flying Fortresses in the hands of the British was a surprise, both to the R.A.F. and to the Germans. Thank* to the turbo-superchargers with which these four-engine Boeing bombers were equipped, the British were able to conduct a number of effective daylight raids against German industrial centres at levels gen- erally out of reach of anti-aircraft fire or of most interceptor fighters. High altitude bombing caused a noticeable shift in thinking with respect to interceptors. Heretofore, with bombers unable to get up over 20,000 or 25,000 ft,, it was relatively easy to build heavily armed and heavily ar- moured interceptors that could easily outmanoeuvre them. Such machines, however, are at a decided disadvantage at 35,ooo-ft. levels. The latest single-engine Messerscbmitt I09F was lightened by the removal of all ar- mour plate and by reducing the armament to one cannon and two machine guns. A lightly armed aeroplane that will manoeuvre well at 35,000 ft. is superior to a more heavily armed machine that is barely able to fly at such altitudes. The same trend was noted with respect to Italy's fighters. Bombers. Bomber design in Britain shifted definitely toward big types with loads and ranges far in excess of the Wellingtons, Whitleys and Hamp- dens with which the R.A.F. started the war. During 1941 the four-motored Shorj Stirlings and Handley-Page Halifax machines appeared in quantity in the squadrons of the bomber commands. Later, the Avro Manchester*, with a pair of 24-cylinder Rolls-Royce Vulture engines reported for active duty. These were supplemented by increasing numbers of U.S.-built Boeing Flying Fortresses and Consolidated Liberators delivered via the north At- lantic route. It was with such machines that the R.A.F., come the spring of 1942, expected to overcome the handicap of distance which separates British aerodromes from German industrial centres. All signs pointed to intensive preparation for assuming the offensive and for carrying the war in the air deep into German territory. Fighter*. Nothing radically new appeared during 1941 in the fighter class in any of the belligerent countries. Spitfires and Hurricanes in im- proved models continued to implement R.A.F. fighter squadrons. Only one of the twin-engine British interceptors that were forecast in the fall of 1940 as antidotes for the ME-nos put in an appearance the Bristol Beau- fighter. This machine had enough range to convoy bombers to Berlin and return. The best night fighter of the R.A.F. proved to be the U.S. Douglas Havoc. This machine was a modification of United States A-2O light bomb- er, with a noseful of guns substituted for the original bombing equipment. The Spitfires and Hurricanes of late 1941 were far more powerful weap- ons than their 1940 predecessors. Fire power was increased to the limit of practical wing loadings. Hurricanes appeared late in 1941 that carried as many as four 2O-mm. cannons mounted in their wings. In fact, few fighters were being considered for production carrying fewer than 10 or 12 wing- mounted 30 to 50 calibre guns, or the equivalent in cannons. This heavy armament was supplemented in some cases by the addition of two 250-lb. bombs slung beneath wings. Squadrons of Hurricanes with 12 machine guns and 2 bombs were used against the German-held channel ports in mid- December. These machines, although too heavily loaded to be effective as fighters during the cross-channel flight, regained their normal fighting char- acteristics once they unloaded their bombs on targets on the French coast. Germany carried on with improved models of the Messerschmitt no two- engine fighter that first appeared in quantities in 1940, and with the light- ened version of the original single-seater (Me-i09F) mentioned above. New and more radical types were rumoured in the making, but had not appeared on any front at year's end. Commerce Raider*. Germany continued the use of big bombers as com- merce raiders far out at sea. The Focke-Wulf Kurier with four i,ooo-h.p. engines was supplemented for such work by the four-engine Bloehm and Voss seaplane bombers and the newer twin-engine Heinkel no torpedo car- rier. It was claimed that 3,000,000 tons out of the 13,500,000 tons of British shipping that had been sent to the bottom since the beginning of the war were accounted for by the lujtwaffe. Some of these sinkings took place as much as 1,000 mi. off shore. As an antidote, British and American aircraft were convoying across the Atlantic route from Canada to Britain. Both shore-based patrol aircraft (operating from Greenland and Iceland) and shipboard fighters were being employed. It was rumoured that certain British merchantmen were fitted with catapults from which single-seat fighters might be launched when attacks were made by the German bombers. "Eriatz" Aircraft, There was a popular notion that German aircraft were inferior to British and American machines because of Germany's extensive use of "ersatz" materials. That this was merely a form of wishful thinking was proved over and over again by detailed examination of captured Ger- man aircraft and engines. Some of the materials employed were not those that could be conventionally specified, but in most instances the substitute material was found to be the equal, if not better, than the non-German articles. Flying equipment captured on all fronts down through the end of 1941 was of excellent design and construction. All accessories, equipment, instrumentation, radio, etc., were up to standards that were acceptable else- where. Tests on captured engines indicated performance, reliability and length of life on a par with other engines of the same class. Fuel and oil from the tanks of German aeroplanes were analyzed and found to be per- fectly adequate for the job at hand. There was no indication that quality of German aircraft suffered for lack of any essential materials. As a matter of fact, there were indications that German research had un- covered new fuels and materials that might be better than those considered standard. For example, reports from British fighter pilots, as well as the evidence on captured German fighters, indicated that special emergency fuel in small quantities was carried that might be used to give a temporary burst of power to enable the fighter either to overtake or to run away from an opponent. Also, there was some reason to believe that assisted takeoffs for heavy bombers by some form of rocket motor was used on an experi- mental scale. It was known, of course, that some experimental work, along these lines was conducted in Germany several years before the war. In this connection, several reports came out of Germany, Britain and Italy, of new types of aircraft to operate at high speeds at high altitudes on rocket or jet propulsion methods. Few details were available in 1941. Icing. All belligerents flying in Europe during the winter months -had difficulty with icing of aircraft and engines. Ice is frequently encountered on the north Atlantic ferry routes. Several planes were lost on transatlantic delivery flights, and on one occasion, 37 British bombers were lost over the North sea in the course of a long-range raid into Germany, probably be- cause of icing. A great deal of effort was being made on both sides to elimi- nate this hazard. The Germans were probably having less trouble from icing of engines because of the widespread use of direct fuel injection in place of the more common carburet ion. They also made considerable prog* ress in the direction of controlling icing on wings and tail surfaces by the application of heat from the engine exhausts a technique that was undei intensive study in the U.S. Anti-aircraft Protection.- -Although no startling new methods or devices for anti-aircraft protection in the way of guns, balloon barrages, search- lights, etc., came into use during 1941, great strides were made in methods of detecting the approach of hostile aircraft. The older aural listening de- vices gave way to radio detection methods that were very accurate and which covered far greater distances. Hy the use of these detectors, supple- mented by reports from ground observers, the British developed an elaborate and successful control system which permitted the plotting of the courses of aircraft approaching the British Isles, and from which orders were issued to aerodromes all over Britain for the sending up of interceptors and fighters. This system, together with the improved arming and performance of Brit- ain's night fighters, was an important factor in reducing the severity of German night raiding over (ireat Britain. Tactical Innovations. -If technical surprises were few, some tactical in- novations were startling and of considerable significance. The use of para- troops was already well established before the end of 1940. Key points in Norway, Holland and Belgium were taken by the sky troops. There had been persistent rumours, however, of possible invasion of Great Britain by transporting large numbers of troops in glider trains. None such ap- peared over the English channel, but the taking of Crete might well have been a dress rehearsal for an attempt in that direction. Not only were paratroops used in large numbers, but for the first time troop-carrying gliders were towed over an objective and landed successfully on enemy terrain. The machines used carried eight to ten fully armed men and had a wing span of some So-odd feet. They were of steel and plywood construc- tion and were stout enough to be landed safely on rough ground. Trains of three to five of them were towed behind JU-52 transports. How many hundreds of troops were put down on Crete in this manner was not defi- nitely known, but the manoeuvre was successful enough to cause every air force in the world, including that of the United States, to make a hasty reassessment of the value of motorless aircraft as a military weapon. Air Power v. Sea Power. However, a series of events of world-shaking importance with respect to aviation took place in the closing months of 1941. For the first time in the history of aviation, the proponents of air power versus sea power could point to definite examples to prove their arguments, rather than having to rely entirely on theoretical considerations. The number of capital ships sunk by aerial bombardment, both in the open sea and while lying in harbours, was not fully known. The British success against the Italian navy at Taranto was only a beginning. The toll was rising steadily. Although the German battleship "Bismarck" was sunk by naval action, it was hunted down and brought to bay by aircraft. Out of a clear sky, Japanese airmen dropped into Pearl Harbor and inflicted losses on the U.S. Pacific fleet that were not, up to Jan. i, 1942, fully evaluated in public. Some three days later, the English-speaking world was plunged into gloom by the destruction of the British warships "Re- pulse" and "Prince of Wales" when they were caught off Singapore without air protection. Naval people everywhere who had counted on the invul- nerability of modern battleships had to face the uncomfortable fact that no surface vessel could fight off, without adequate aerial protection, a de- termined assault by large numbers of bombers and torpedo carriers deter- mined to destroy it at any cost. Gen. William Mitchell, who resigned from the U.S. army air corps in the middle J 20s as a result of his unorthodox opinions, may not have been entirely right in claiming absolute superiority for air power over naval power. There is little doubt, however, that the lessons of 1941 were having a profound effect on naval thinking and naval tactics all over the world. [See also AVIATION, CIVIL; DEFENSE, NATIONAL (U.S.): Armed Forces; MUNITIONS OF WAR; WORLD WAR II.] (S. P.J.) Air Mail: see POST OFFICE: United States. Ai*nA*+A AN*| riiMn/v r: A |l A Transportation and civili- Airports and Flying Fields. zation p have a iway s ad. vancecl hand in hand, and United States engineering genius has always played a large part in improving transport facilities. In 1941, however, that genius was directed toward war, another world war, with the aeroplane its chief weapon. Airports in the U.S., far from being solely a factor in the nation's commercial development, became a vital factor in its national defense. Each civil airport, whether small or large, must be considered a poten- tial military airport in time of war. Thus, every consideration must be given to its utility and adaptability to war. Scientific aids to flight which had been developed were being improved under emergency pressure. In order to provide the nation with enough adequate airports from which planes may defend it in case of attack, $40,000,000 was appropriated for airports in the 1941 budget, and for 1942 an additional appropriation of $94,977,750 was made by congress to the Civil Aeronautics administration. This airport construc- tion program, while closely co-ordinated with defense efforts, was of double value as an investment for it not only met an im- PARACHUTE TROOPS of Camp Benning, Qa. dropping at regular Intervali from U.S. army traniport planei. By the fall of 1941 the number of such troopi had grown from 48 to more than 4,000 34 mediate and urgent defense need, but also represented a perma- nent contribution to aviation in general. Construction or improvement projects were to be conducted on 288 airports in the United States during 1941-42. These locations involved a total estimated expenditure of $80,810,110, of which $534093oo would be spent on 26 locations in the initial pro- gram but not in 1941 placed under construction, and 149 new loca- tions in the continental United States. New locations mean those not heretofore included in the Civil Aeronautics administration program. A total of $18,968,871 was to go toward continuing work on 113 other projects in the United States started in the ini- tial program authorized in Oct. 1940. It was anticipated that all work would be completed during the early part of 1942. In the over-all Civil Aeronautics administration airport program which began Oct. 1940, completion of this program would mean that the national total of airports would be increased by 43 class 4, 246 class 3, 14 class 2, and 2 seaplane ramps as a result of the Civil Aeronautics administration program. Class ratings are by runway lengths, class i having runways of 2,500 ft. or less; class 2, 2,500 ft. to 3,500 ft.; class 3, 3,500 ft. to 4,500 ft.; and class 4, 4,500 ft. or more. Airport construction and improvement projects under the super- vision of the Civil Aeronautics administration were limited to airports owned by local governmental authorities. The work undertaken on these airports was restricted to the development of landing facilities. All other improvements, including hangars and other buildings, must be done by local enterprises or local government. The airports must be operated in the general public interest, must remain in public ownership, and local government must agree to maintain and operate them. Federal Airways System of the United States. Under the stimulus of national defense, the Civil Aeronautics administration continued its rapid expansion of the federal airways system dur- ing the fiscal year 1941. As of July i, 1941, the total mileage of lighted operating air- ways in the United States had risen to 30,913 mi. There were 1,945 ml - of airways under construction and 921 mi. under survey. Other indications of the progress made in this direction are the following figures for air navigation facilities in operation as of July i, 1941: 2,276 airway beacons, 280 intermediate landing fields, 29 lighted airports maintained by the Civil Aeronautics administration, 114 full-power radio stations, 139 medium-power radio range and communication stations, 39 low-power radio range and communication stations, 38 nondirectional radio marker sta- Air Navigation Facilitiet of the U.S., Dec. I, 7947 Sourer: Civil Aeronautics Journal AIRPORTS ,018 298 398 691 1,082 Airports with servicing 1 . . Airports with paved runways Airports with two-way radio Lighted airports* Airports by class: Municipal " - Commercial ............ QOI Private ,....,.. 31 Army 78 Navy 38 Misc. govt. 40 CAA intermediate fields . . . 283 Total 2,453 SEAPLANE BASES Army, navy, coast guard, marine corps 36 Other seaplane bases and anchor- ages 3*8 Total .......... Seaplane bases having any night lighting equipment ..... 364 RADIO AIDS Ranges (n in Alaska, 2 in Ha- waii) , . .JO7 Range stations, simultaneous with voice (loin Alaska, 2 in Hawaii) 106 Range stations, nonsimultanc- ous with voice 09 Range stations, no voice (i in Alaska) ja Broadcast stations (it In Alaska. 2 in Hawaii) 120 Broadcast stations, simultane- ous (10 in Alaska, 2 in Ha- waii) .......... ix; Hroadcast stations, nonsimulta- neous (i in Alaska) ... 3 Marker stations 35 Fan markers 149 Voice (only) stations (5 in Alaska) 18 7. markers (not at range stations) 2 Servicing: hangar, repairs and fuel available. 'Lighted airport: boundary and beacon and/or floodlights. CONTROL TOWER of the National airport at Washington, D.C., most modern In the world at the time of the a'rport's opening June 16, 1941. It hat radio receivers for each airline using the field tions, 118 ultra-high frequency fan markers and 2 modified Z-type markers. Over a network of 13,292 mi. of teletype wires were transmitted instructions and information needed for the orderly direction of airways traffic from 133 traffic control stations. Invaluable weather information was supplied from 414 weather reporting sta- tions, with a teletype mileage. of 29422 mi. Traffic along this vast chain also must be guided 24 hr. a day, a job that requires the unceasing vigilance of more than 3,000 employees and costs more than $1,500,000 a month to maintain. The major development in 1941 was the establishment of ultra- high frequency radio ranges and radio landing systems at various points throughout the country. Congress appropriated $2,477,000 to the Civil Aeronautics administration for this purpose. The New York-Chicago airway was the first link in what the Civil Aeronautics administration technicians believe would be the even- tual conversion of the entire 35,000 mi. of federal airways from intermediate frequencies in the 200-400 kilocycle band to ultra- high frequencies between 119,000 and 126,000 kilocycles. The utilization of ultra-high frequency radio waves not only eliminates interruptions due to static interference inherent in the low fre- quencies, but assures uniformity of signal strength in the pilot's headphones. (. M. E.) Alt RflPP^ Thc s P reac * ing war conditions and governmental fill !\.,, >; t -rf->" Coke . . '.'. . ;".'''; 27,708,000 10,917, 5*0 26,769,000 9,888 292 Iron ore . . . , 971 024 7 34! 620 Cement 6,690 765 114 246 Stone ... . 2 eifi *8d 1 8OU 17G Clay products 2,306,712 1,487 067 Manufacturing. -In 1939 there were 2,052 manufacturing establishments hiring 126,215 workers and producing goods valued at $574,670,690. The leading manufactures were cotton textiles (valued at about $92,000,000; spindles in operation, 1,835,909), iron and steel and electricity. Corpora- tion and municipal production of electricity amounted to about 900,000 h.p., and the TVA plants were capable of producing slightly more. There were more than 6,000 mi. of rural electric lines. Other important indus- tries: lumber, blast furnace products, cast iron pipes and fittings, coke oven products, cotton-seed oil and meal, paper, aluminum, cement, chemicals, fertilizers, meat packing and shipbuilding. War demands caused expansion of old industries and the rise of new industries, such as powder manufac- turing, in 1941. Mineral Production. The total value of Alabama's mineral production in 1939 was $54,^24,382; in 1938 it was $46,296,293. (A. B. Mo.; X.) Alaska, one of the two incorporated territories of the United States, 586,400 sq.mi. in extent, approximately one-fifth of the area of the 48 states, lies between the meridians 130 W. longitude and 173 E. longitude and between the paral- lels of 51 and 72 N. latitude. It is bounded on the north by the Arctic ocean, on the west by the Arctic ocean, Bering strait and Bering sea, on the south and southwest by the Pacific ocean, and on the east by Canada. The eastern boundary from the Arctic ocean to the Pacific in the neighbourhood of Mt. St. Elias is the i4ist meridian; thence eastward to Portland canal the boundary is irregular but runs approximately parallel to the shore at a dis- tance some 30 mi. inland. In the year 1941, the territory reached an all-time high in population. The 1940 census (actually taken in Alaska Oct. i^ 1939, six months earlier than in the states) showed a total popu- lation of 7.1,524 an increase of 22-3% over the 1930 figure of 59,278 and substantially higher than the previous high in 1910 of 64,356. The taking of the census, however, preceded the in- auguration of a far-flung national defense program in Alaska, which by the end of the calendar year 1941 approached $200,- 000,000. Not counting the troops stationed in Alaska, it is con- servatively estimated that the population of the territory at the end of 1941 exceeded 80,000. ; History. Military and naval construction, begun in 1940, was greatly increased in 1941 and included the establishment, with the navy posts at Sitka, Kodiak and Dutch Harbor, of army posts respectively named Fort Ray, Fort Greeley and Fort Mears, A THE FOURTH OF JULY, 1941, was celebrated in Anchorage, Alaska with a parade of newly-arrived U.S. troops 38 ALASKAN HIGHWAY ALBERTINI, LUIGI new post at Seward, southern terminus of the Alaska railroad, was named Fort Raymond all these after army officers who had rendered distinguished service in the territory in earlier days. The scat of the Alaska defense forces at Fort Richardson, near An- chorage, was put under the command of a major general, with a brigadier in direct command of Fort Richardson itself. A great program of military and commercial airports and flying fields was also well under way, with major fields at Annette island to serve Ketchikan, the southern gateway to the territory at Juneau, Yakutat, Cordova, Seward, Bethel, Nome, East Ruby, Big Delta and Moose Creek, just west of the Alaska- Yukon terri- tory boundary near the Tanana river. The construction on Ladd field near Fairbanks as an experimental station for fliers was com- pleted. Commercial radio-beam stations, previously lacking in Alaska, were likewise installed. An important by-product of the defense program was the construction begun and well under way in 1941, of a trunk highway from Palmer to Copper Center con- necting the Anchorage and Fairbanks system of roads and making a total central road network in Alaska of 1,392^ mi. The terri- torial legislature, convening in the spring of 1941, enacted for the first time a territorial traffic law. Commerce. The salmon run in southeastern Alaska during the 1941 sea- son was unprecedented in size. For the fiscal year ending June 30, 1940 gold production also reached unprecedented levels; namely, $26,178,000. Tourist travel was impaired by the requirements of defense personnel and the withdrawal of certain steamers for defense purposes elsewhere. The year 1941 was the most prosperous year in Alaska's history. The defense pro- gram brought great activity throughout the territory, and wages soared to unprecedented heights. (E. GRU.) Alaskan Highway: see ROADS AND HIGHWAYS. A kingdom, united with the Italian empire, in the western part of the Balkan peninsula. Area, 10,629 sq.mi.; population (census 1930) 1,003,124. Capital, Tirana, Chief cities: Tirana (30,806); Scutari (29,209); Kortcha (22,- 787); Elbasan (13,796); Valona (9,100). Religion; Mohamme- dans (688,280); Orthodox Christians (210,313); Roman Catholic (104,184). King: Victor Emmanuel III, king of Italy. Prime minister: Mustafa Merlika Kruja. History. Albania shared during 1941 the general fate of the Balkan peninsula. At the beginning of the year the Italian fas- cist troops under strong Greek pressure were everywhere in retreat and the Greek armies were in occupation of a large part of Al- banian territory in the east and in the southeast of the country, where they restored the Albanian law as it had existed before the fascist invasion of the country on Good Friday, 1939, and its union with Italy. In the first months of 1941 the Greeks suc- ceeded in holding all Italian attempts at a reconquest of the lost territory, and even expanded their hold on the country. On Jan. 10 they captured Klisura and pressed toward Tepeleni. In March Premier Mussolini himself visited the Albanian front and assumed personal direction of the operations. Nevertheless the Italian offensives all failed with very heavy losses for the fascist army. Neither, however, were the Greek forces strong enough to cap- ture the long-assaulted Tepeleni on the central front and Va- lona on the sea. But the Albanian situation changed fundamen- tally, not through any Italian efforts but through Germany's active participation in the war against Greece. On April ,6, 1941, the German forces began active operations against Yugo- slavia and Greece. By April 18 the Yugoslav army had surren- dered, the Greeks were pushed far back and were unable to hold the Albanian front any longer. Under these conditions the Italians could rtoccupy the parts of Albania evacuated by the Greeks, and on April 22 even cross the Greek frontier. The next day the Greek army in the Epirus surrendered to the advancing Germans (see WORLD WAR II). From that moment Albania came again under fascist adminis- tration, and fascist laws were reintroduced throughout the coun- try. With the Italian occupation of large parts of Yugoslavia and Greece certain rectifications of the Albanian frontier, by the inclusion of Greek and Yugoslav parts, were envisaged. Education, Finance, Tradt Albania had, in 1939. 66^ state elementary schools with 38,988 boys and 17,948 girl pupils; in addition, 18 secondary schools for boys and one for girls. The Albanian currency is pegged to the Italian currency. An Albanian franc equals 6.25 lire (32.89 cents U.S., June 1941). In the last year of normal independent Albanian life, in 1938, the imports amounted to 22,397,890 Albanian francs (of which 8,337,109 came from Italy, 1,350,413 from the U.S.A.), the exports to 9,749,959, of which there went to Italy 6,665,257 and to the U.S.A. 435,537. Chief arti- cles of export were hides and furs, wool, cheese and cattle; chief articles of import were cotton and cotton goods, corn and sugar. Communication and Minerals. Albania had no railroads in use in 1941, but the Italians have very much improved, for military reasons, the road system, though communications outside the main roads remained primitive in 1941. The main port of the country is Durazzo. With the economic life of the country still on a very primitive level, there exists practically no modern industry. The Italians have made efforts to exploit the mineral resources of the country, especially oil and copper. (See also GREECE; ITALY.) BIBLIOGRAPHY. Vandeleur Robinson, Albania's Road to Freedom (i94O. (H. Ko.) Alharto ^ e most wester ty f ^ e P^irie provinces of Can- filUul Idi ada, Alberta was created a province by act of the dominion parliament Sept. i, 1905. Area, 255,285 sq.mi.; the population by the census of 1941 was 788,393. Seat of govern- ment, Edmonton (92,404). The principal cities and their popula- tions (1941 census) are: Calgary (87,264), Lethbridge (14,238) and Medicine Hat (10,473). The province sent 17 members to the house of commons at Ottawa, and six senators to the Cana- dian senate, as of 1941. History. William Aberhart, the premier in 1941, was first elected to office Sept. 3, 1935, at the head of a new party, called the Social Credit party. His government was returned to office at the general elections held in March 1940, securing 36 out of the 57 seats a loss of n seats when compared with 1935. All at- tempts to put the social credit plan into operation had failed by 1941, and all unorthodox monetary and financial legislation passed by the Alberta legislature had been declared ultra vires by the supreme court of Canada, as for example, in Dec. 1941, the Al- berta Debt Adjustment act of 1937. Education. The province has autonomous control over formal education. In 1939, daily average school attendance was 138,392; teachers numbered 5.963; government grants and tax revenue amounted to $10,196,906. Communication In 1940 there were 3,456 mi. of surfaced roads and 12,309 mi. of improved earth roads. Total expenditure for 1939 was $3,749,141. Finonc*. The province continued to default on its bond maturities during the year. The total in default as of Dec. i, 1941, was slightly in excess of $22,000,000. Ordinary revenue (1940) was $24,410,040; ordinary expendi- ture, $21,922,189. Agriculture. The following figures as reported by the Dominion bureau of statistics, show the value of the principal field crops for 1941: wheat, $43,200,000; oats, $22,630,000; barley, $9,720,000; rye, $760,000; flax- seed, $1,331,000; potatoes, $1,222,000; hay, clover, $3,775*000; alfalfa, $2,183,000; grain hay, $6,500,000, and sugar beets, $1,782,000. The total value of crops in 1941 was $93,331,000, as compared with $139,659,000 in 1940. Mineral Production. The production of crude oil in Canada for 1941 reached an all-time high of some 9,990,000 barrels. Of this volume, 97% was produced from the Turner valley field, which showed an increased out- put of 15% over 1940. The producing rate for this field, as assigned by the Alberta Petroleum and Natural Gas Conservation board for the conserva- tion and maximum economic recovery of the oil and gas resources, was supplemented by the production stabilization program of the oil controller for an increased volume of output and a uniform rate of production during 1941. Thirty-nine new wells were completed up to Dec. i, 1941. Explora- tory drilling resulted in an extension of i# mi. to the known productive area in the north end of the Turner valley. During the year the production o! crude oil was commenced from the bituminous deposits of Athabaska, and some deliveries of refined products were made at McMurray. (J.T. C.) Alhortini Illiffi ( X *7i-i940, Italian journalist and poli- fllUCl Ulll, LUIgl tician, was born Oct. 19 at Ancona. He was named to the senate in 1914. Albertini was editor and chief owner of // Corriere delta Sera, Milan newspaper, from 1909 until 1925, when he was ousted by Mussolini for his outspoken criticism of fascism. A Berne dispatch of Dec. 30 carried the news of his death in Rome. (See Encyclopedia Britannica.) ALCOHOLIC INTOXICATION ALIMENTARY SYSTEM Alcoholic Intoxication: see INTOXICATION, ALCOHOLIC. Alcoholic Liquor: see BREWING AND BEER; LIQUORS, ALCO- HOLIC; WINES. Alexander, Robert (1863-1941), U.S. general, was born Oct. 1 7 in Baltimore, Md, He quit his law practice in 1886 to join the army and saw service in the Sioux Indian campaigns of 1890-91, the Spanish-American War, the Philippine insurrection and the Mexican campaign. During World War I he rose swiftly from the rank of colonel to major general and was placed in command of the 77th division in Aug. 1918. His troops participated in the Vesle-Aisne advance, the Argonne drive and the big push on Sedan in 1918. Gen. Alexander, who was awarded the D.S.C. and the Croix de Guerre, retired from the army in 1927. He died at the Veterans' Administration hospital in the Bronx, N.Y., Aug. 26. Alfalfa Production of alfalfa hay in the United States in 1941 Alldlld. W as 32,346,000 tons from 14,929,000 ac., compared with 30,206,000 tons from 13,908,000 ac. in 1940, and a ten-year (i 93-39) average, including two extreme drought years, of 24,- 907,000 tons from 12,867,000 ac. The yield was 2-17 bu. per ac. in 1941 and in 1940, the ten-year average yield being 1-93 bu. per ac. Nearly a quarter of the crop was from three states: Michigan, Wisconsin and Minnesota. Production of alfalfa seed in 1941 was 1,017,100 bu. (61,026,000 lb.), 32% under the output of 1,489,900 bu. (89,394,000 lb.) in 1940. The ten-year average was 1,028,220 bu. (61,693,200 lb.). The 1941 acreage harvested for seed was 791,000 compared with 962,700 ac. in 1940 and a ten- year average of 556,150 ac. The 1941 yield was 1-29 bu. per ac.; 1-55 bu. in 1940 and a ten-year average of 1-87 bu. (See also HAY.) U.S. Alfalfa Hay Production in Leading Sfofei, 1941 and 1940 State 1941 tons 1940 ton* State 1941 tons 1940 tons California , . . Minnesota . . Wisconsin . . . Iowa ..... 3,198,000 2,776,000 2,698,000 2,502,000 3,477,000 2,264,000 2,866,000 2,120,000 Illinois .... Colorado . . . Kansas .... Montana , . . ,370,000 ,363,000 ,247,000 ,147,000 1,157,000 1,196,000 882,000 96^,000 Idaho 1,911,000 1,950,000 Nebraska . . . ,106,000 764,000 Michigan 1, 8 1 },ooo 2,202,000 Utah ,043,000 948,000 (S.O.R.) Alfonso XIII: see ALPHONSO XIII. Algeria: see FRENCH COLONIAL EMPIRE. Alitns: see CENSUS, 1940: Race and Nativity; IMMIGRATION AND EMIGRATION. Alimentary System, Disorders of. Camiel and Loewe state that features common to all tumours in- volving the upper third part of the oesophagus are: location at or near the uppermost portion, paralysis or paresis of one or both vocal cords, inability to swallow, aspiration of food into the tracheobronchial tree, pulmonary complications due to aspira- tion, and the frequent occurrence of club fingers. With the oesophagoscope Faulkner showed that disturbing thoughts and emotions produce generalized oesophageal spasm, and that certain oesophageal strictures, cardiospasm and pressure diverticula can have their origin in disturbing emotional influences. Garlock believes that the skilled surgeon approaches the serious prob- lem of oesophageal carcinoma with gradually increasing chances of some success from proper operative procedures. Stomach and Duodenum. Reports from army and navy hos- pital centres in Britain and from recruiting centres in Canada lend clinical proof that dyspeptic persons are the largest sin- gle group of patients in the armed forces. Difficulties of di- gestion, from several points of view, constitute the most impor- tant medical problems of the war. About one in four dyspeptic persons has a gastric or duodenal ulcer, the latter predominating. Little advance has been made in the recognition of gastric can- cer in its earlier, operable stages. In a consideration of the early roentgenologic diagnosis of this disease Bucker included Konjetzny's description of the macroscopic appearance of the smaller cancers: (i) well defined verrucose, crusted or polypoid mucosal thickening, (2) circumscribed flattened, frequently small, inconspicuous mural thickening with superficial irregular erosions. (3) large superficial erosions with mucosal rims, giving the im- pression of superficial ulcers, (4) saucerlike shallow ulcers, and (5) typical chronic ulcers. The fact that gastric cancer can masquerade as benign ulcer, not only with the symptoms and signs, but occasionally even reacting in response to treatment, is being amply confirmed by competent observers. The intravenous and intramuscular use of coagulants derived from shepherd's- purse, having as their active principle oxalic acid and related di- carboxylic acids, in the treatment of acute haemorrhage, and diacetyltannin-silver-protein compound in the treatment of in- flammatory states of the gastrointestinal mucous membrane, deserves an extended trial. (See also CANCER.) Biliary Tract and Pancreas. In the United States the tradi- tional use of the high carbohydrate, low fat and protein diet in the treatment of diseases of the biliary tract is undergoing revi- sion. Experimental and clinical observations confirm the impor- tance of an adequate intake of protein. The protective action of a high protein diet for the liver against the necrotizing action of certain anaesthetic agents and the deleterious influences of other hepatotoxins such as arsphenamine have been demonstrated by Ravdin and others. In the treatment of hepatic cirrhosis Patek and Post advocated a nutritious diet containing a moderate amount of protein (114 gm.) and fat, and dietary supplements rich in the vitamin B complex. Broun and Muether have had en- couraging results with a diet low in animal fat and cholesterol, the use of casein and vegetable proteins, and the administration of a 25% watery solution of flavoured choline chloride. The principal clinical features in a series of 18 cases of pan- creatic lithiasis were, according to Snell, colic, motor disturbances of the stomach and small intestine, diabetes, actual and latent, loss of weight and fatty diarrhoea. The diagnosis depends chiefly on the roentgenologic evidence of stones. Intestines. Sulphonamides loom increasingly important in the medical and surgical treatment of intestinal disturbances. Bacil- lary dysentery and other infections caused by the so-called colon- typhoid-dysentery group of organisms are reported to respond favourably to this form of chemotherapy. Sulphanilylguanadine is particularly recommended because of its low toxicity. Whether it possesses any real advantage over the other sulphonamides re- mains to be seen. Fatalities arising from acute appendicitis and its complications seem likely to be reduced by the augmentation of chemotherapy with intelligently used gastrointestinal decom- pression. The curative effect of sulphanilamide and sulphapyri- dine in the treatment of abdominal as well as other forms of actinomycosis appears to be confirmed by the observations of Dorling and Eckhoff. BIBLIOGRAPHY. W. B. Faulkner, Jr., "Objective Esophageal Changes Due to Psychic Factors: an Esophagoscopic Study with Report of 13 Cases/' Am. J. M. Sc. (Dec. 1940); G. C. Dorling and N. L. Eckhoff, "Chemotherapy of Abdominal Actinomycosis," Lancet (Dec. 7, 1940); J. Bucker, "Die Friihdiagnose des Magenkrebscs im Rontgcnbild," Fortschr. a.d. Geb. d. Rontgcnstrahlen (Jan. 1941); J. H. Oarlock, "Problem of Can- cer of Esophagus," J. Mt. Sinai Hasp. (Jan.-Feb. 1941); I. S. Ravdin, "Some Factors Involved in the Care of the Patient Seriously III with Biliary Tract Disease," California 6- West. Med. (April 1941); M. R. Camiel and Leo Loewe, "A Syndrome of Upper Esophageal Stenosis," Ann. Int. Med. (July 1941); A. M. Snell and M. W. Comfort, "The Incidence and Diag- nosis of Pancreatic Lithiasis," Am. J. Digest. Dis. (July 1941). (G. B.EN.) 40 ALLERGY ALUMINUM ^ ues ^ on whether sensitivity in humans (allergy) i s comparable to similar conditions in animals (an- aphylaxis) is of more than academic interest, because of the ap- plication of observations in animal experiments to allergy in humans. The relationship of the two conditions was demonstrated by the study of typical spontaneous hay fever in a dog (Wittich). The animal gave positive skin, eye and nasal reactions to the suspected pollens. The similarity of anaphylaxis (induced sen- sitization in animals) and allergy was confirmed by Cohen an4 Weller, who succeeded in demonstrating the presence of antibodies known as precipitins in the blood of typically allergic patients. Such antibodies heretofore had been found only in the blood of sensitized animals, particularly in rabbits. Another interesting contribution in the field of experimental sensitization was reported by Loveless. Three non-allergic pa- tients who were suffering from incurable conditions permitted themselves to be transfused with the blood of pollen-sensitive cases. All three developed symptoms of pollen sensitivity lasting up to 24 days. A number of new causes for allergic symptoms were reported during 1941. A patient with hives of 15 months' duration was found sensitive to acrolein and other common, related aldehydes (Rappaport and Hoffman). Since acrolein is common as a com- bustion product of fats, as in the frying of foods, and since many aldehydes (in perfumes and aromatic foods) are related to acro- lein, it may indicate a new and important cause of allergic symp- toms. Ascher reported nasal allergy caused by the use of psyllium seeds as a laxative. To the many known causes of asthma were added paprika (Gelfand), and gum acacia (Bohner, et a/.). While acacia was previously reported as a rare cause of allergy, the authors found ten patients with asthma due to its use as an offset spray in printing. Insect emanations, as a cause of asthma, were given added importance by the reports of asthma due to moths (Urbach), to beetles (Sheldon and Johnston), and to a crusta- cean known as the water flea (Way). Most important contributions were toward improvement in the treatment of pollen sensitivity. Most of the work was limited to changes in pollen solutions involving the preparation of a material which would be absorbed more slowly, and would permit fewer injections for immunization. Spain and his co-workers re- duced the rate of absorption of pollen by adding gelatin to the solution, with excellent results in the treatment of a group of patients. Strauss and Spain reported the chemical union of rag- weed pollen with sulphanilic acid. This conjugated product re- tained its potency as demonstrated by skin tests. Naterman re- ported excellent results in 90% of hay fever cases treated with a tannic acid precipitate of pollen. BIBLIOGRAPHY. F, W. Wittich, "Allergy (Atopy) in the Lower Animal," /. Allergy, 12:247-51 (1941); M. B. Cohen and R. R. Weller, "Precipitins in the Sera of Patients with Clinical Allergy," ibid., 12:242-43 (1941); M. H. Loveless, "Sensitization of Man Through Transfusion," /. Immunol- ogy, 41:15-34 (1941); B. Z. Rappaport and H. M. Hoffman, "Urticaria Due to Aliphatic Aldehydes, A Clinical and Experimental Study," J.A.M.A., 116:2656-59 (1941); M.S. Ascher, "Psyllium Seed Sensitivity," /.Allergy, 12:607-09 (1941); H. H. Gelfand, "Vasomotor Rhinitis and Asthma Due to Paprika," ibid., 12:312-13 (1941); C. B. Bohncr, J. M. Sheldon and J. W. Tennis, "Sensitivity to Gum Acacia," ibid., 12:290-94 (1941); E. Urbach and P. M. Gottlieb, "Asthma from Insect Emanations," ibid., 12:485-91 (1941); J. M. Sheldon and J. H. Johnston, "Hypersensitivity to Beetles (Coleoptera)," ibid., 12:493-94 (1941); K. D. Way, "Water Flea Sensitivity," ibid., 12:495-97 (1941); W. C. Spain, A. M. Fuchs and M. B. Strauss, "A Slowly Absorbed Pollen Extract for the Treatment of Hay Fever," ibid., 12:365-7? (1941); M. B. Strauss and W. C. Spain, "Immunologic Studies with Conjugated Ragweed Pollen Extracts," ibid. t 12:543-48 (1941); H. L. Naterman, "The Treatment of Hay. Fever by Injections of Suspended Pollen Tannate," ibid., 12:378-87 (1941). fr (B. Z. R,) Allocations and Allotments: see BUSINESS REVIEW; SUP- PLY PRIORITIES AND ALLOCATIONS BOARD. Alloys: see BERYLLIUM; MAGNESIUM; METALLURGY; MOLYB- DENUM; MONAZITE; NICKEL; TITANIUM; VANADIUM. Alphonso VIII (1886-1941), king of Spain, was born May 17 in Madrid. Two weeks before his death the former monarch issued a manifesto, renouncing his rights to the throne in favour of his son, Don Juan, whom a monarchist faction hailed as the future Juan III. In 1939 the Franco government de- creed the restoration to Alphonso of property valued at about $8,500,000, which had been confiscated by the Spanish republic in 1932, the year after he fled the throne. He died in Rome, Feb. 28. The Franco government granted permission for his burial in the royal pantheon of the Escorial near Madrid. For his earlier career see Encyclopaedia Britannka. The estimatecj worlc * production of aluminum (also spelled aluminium) increased from 670,000 metric tons in 1939 to 785,000 tons in 1940, of which 240,000 tons are attributed to Germany, 188,000 tons to the United States, 95,000 to Canada, 55,000 to the Soviet Union, 50,000 to France, 36,000 to Italy, 32,000 to Japan, 29,000 to Switzerland, 20,000 to Norway, and smaller amounts to minor producers. No estimates were received for 1941, but the growing demand for military uses assures an even greater increase in 1941 than that of 1940. The United States output increased 29% in 1940, to 206,280 short tons and would show a further heavy increase in 1941. No specific figures had been made public, but an expansion program that called for an output of about 340,000 tons by midyear was known to have been approximately achieved, and good progress was reported on further additions that would add a similar ton- nage early in 1942, and still further additions would probably be made. Secondary recovery increased to 68,045 tons in 1940, and was expected to keep pace with new output in 1941. Demand from abroad kept exports well ahead of imports during 1939 and 1940, but in 1941 exports were limited and this, in connection with lack of accessibility to foreign sources of supply, cut both imports and exports to below normal. Following a reduction in price from 20 cents per Ib. to 17 cents during 1940, the price was further reduced to 15 cents on Oct. i, 1941. Production conditions outside of the United States were kept so well under cover that only inferences can be drawn. The dis- tance between Great Britain and sources of bauxite supply made it likely that there would be little increase in British production, as it was more feasible to take British Guiana bauxite to Canada, and such increases as might be made were more likely to come in Canada than in Britain. Two-thirds of the Russian capacity was on the Dnieper river, and had presumably been destroyed. Ger- many had direct access to bauxite supplies in Hungary, Yugo- 1915 1917 1919 1921 1923 1925 1927 1929 W3I 1933 19 5 1937 1939 1941 ALUMINUM PRODUCTION OF THE WORLD and thi chief producing coun- tries, ai compiled by The Mininl Industry DISPLAYS OF USED ALUMINUM contributed by housewives and otheri lo pur- poses of national defense appeared throughout the U.S.A. in the spring and summer of 1941 ' '.'. .'' ' * slavia and Greece, from Italy if needed, and probably from France as well; this assured a plentiful supply, and if German output were restricted in any way, it would not be likely to be from lack of ore supplies. Italian production probably was enlarged, and also that of Japan. While the Norwegian smelters were entirely under German control, it was expected to be extremely difficult to keep them supplied with ore, and it was doubtful if they could be kept going. While Switzerland was still nominally independent of German control, the smelters were dependent on ore supplies that were under complete German control, so that it was likely that Swiss production was in 1941 largely for German benefit. The growing subservience of Vichy France to German domination probably put both the French ore supplies and smelters under German control insofar as they might have been needed, even though they were located in the unoccupied area. (See also CYROLITE.) (G. A. Ro.) Ambassadors and Envoys. to and from the United States and to and from Great Britain Jan. i, 1942. To and From the United States ('^ambassadors; unstarred, envoys.) To the United States Country From the United States Espil, Felipe A ......... Argentina Casey, Richard G ........ Australia Straten Ponthoz, Count Robert van der ........... Belgium *Armour, Norman Johnson, Nelson T. Biddle, Anthony J. D., Jr. 8 To the United States Guachalla, Dr. Luis F. . * Martins, Carlos McCarthy, Leighton , *Michels, Rodolfo . . <:,, *HuShih, Dr. .... . "Turhay, Dr. Gabriel . . Fernandez, Dr. Luis . . *Concheso, Dr. Aurclio F. Uurban, Vladimfr Czechoslovakia Kauffmann, Henrik de Troncoso, Dr. J. M *Alfaro, Capt. Col6n E. 1 . . . . Hassan Bey, Mahmoud . . . . Brennan, Robert Castro, Dr. Hector D. (absent) . Kaiv, Johannes 2 Procope, Hjalmar J *lienry-llaye, Gaston *1 1 all fax. Viscount Diamanto{X)ulos, Cimon P. . . Recinos, Dr. Adrian Dennis, Fernand Caceres, Dr. Julian R Thors, Thor Schayesteh, Mohammed. . . . {jilmanis, Dr. Alfred Zadeikis, Povilas Le Gallais, Hugues "Castillo Najera, Dr. Francisco . Loudon, Dr. A Netherlands Country From the United States Bolivia .... Jenkins, Douglas Brazil .... *Caffcry, Jefferson Canada .... Moffat, Jay Pierrepont Chile 'Bowers, Claude (i. China .... *Gauss, Clarence E. Colombia . . . *Braden, Spruille (absent) Costa Rica . . Lane, Arthur Bliss Cuba *Braden, Spruillc (ap- pointed) Diddle, Anthony J. D., Jr. 8 Atherton. Ray (absent) Scotten, Robert M. Long, Boaz Kirk, Alexander C. 4 Gray, David Frazer, Robert (absent) Denmark . . . Dominican Rep Ecuador . . . Egypt . . . . Eire (Ireland) . El Salvador . . Estonia . . . . Finland . . . France . . . . Great Britain . Greece . . . . Schoenfeld, H. F. Arthur *I,cahy, William D. *\Vinant, John G. Biddle, Anthony J. D., Jr. 3 Des Portcs, Fay A. White, John C. Erwin, John D. MacVeagh, Lincoln Iran Dreyfus, L. G., Jr. 6 Latvia Lithuania Guatemala Haiti . . . Honduras . Iceland DeBayle, Dr. Le6n Munthe de Morgenstierne,Wilhclm *Ja6n Guardia, Ernesto Soler, Dr. Juan Jos6 *Freyre y Santander, Manuel de . *Ciechanowski, Jan Bianchi, Joao A. de *Cardenas, Juan F. de Bostrorn, W Bruggmann, Charles Luxembourg. . Moffat, Jay Pierrepont* Mexico . . . ,*Messersmith, George S. (appointed) Biddle, Anthony J. D., Jr.* Boal, Pierre de L. Biddle, Anthony J. D., Jr. 8 Panama. . . . *VVilson, Edwin C. Paraguay . . . Frost, Wesley Peru *Norweb, R. Henry Poland . . . .*Biddle, Anthony J. D., Jr. 3 Portugal . . . Fish, Bert Nicaragua Norway . Spain Sweden . . Switzerland Seni Promo j, Rajawongsc . *Ertegiin, Mehmet M. . . . Close, Ralph W *Litvinov, Maxim . . . , *Rlanco, Dr. Juan C. . . *Escalante, Dr. Di6genes Fotic, Constantin . . , Thailand . . . Turkey . . . . Union of South Africa . . . U.S.S.R. . . . Uruguay . . Venezuela . Yugoslavia . . Weddell. Alexander W. Sterling, Frederick A. Harrison, Leland (absent) *Steinhardt, Laurence A. (appointed Jan. 1042) Keena, Leo J . *Steinhardt, Laurence A. (absent) *Dawson, William . *Corrigan, Frank P. Biddle, Anthony J. D., Jr.' *Rank of ambassador for duration of boundary negotiations between Ecuador and Peru. 'Acting consul general, in New York city. 'Accredited to govern- ments of Belgium. Czechoslovakia, Greece, The Netherlands, Norway, Poland and Yugoslavia, all established in England. Accredited also to Saudi Arabia; resident in Cairo. Accredited also to Afghanistan; resident in Tehran. 'Minis- ter to Canada but accredited also to government of Luxembourg, established in Canada. To and From Great Britain (* Ambassador; unstarred Envoy-Extraordinary; -Charg6 d'Affaires.) Minister Resident; To Great Britain Sardar Ahmed Alt Khan . . . , Carcano, Dr. Miguel Angel . *de Marchienne, Baron E. dc-C. Patifio, Antenor ...... *de Aragao, J. J. Moniz . . . *Bianchi, Manuel *Koo, Dr. V. K. Wellington. . Jaramillo Arango, Dr. Jaime . (Vacant) de Blanck, Guillermo . . . . Lobkowicz, Maximilian . . , 2 Reventlow, Count Eduard Henriquez-Urefia, M. . . . Puig-Arosemena, Alberto 'Hassan Nashat Pasha . . Torma, August Simopoulos, Charalambos Country Afghanistan . Argentina Belgian Govt. Bolivia . . . . Brazil . . . . Chile China .... Colombia . . . Costa Rica . . Cuba . . . . Czechoslovak Provis. Govt (in London) Denmark . . . Dominican Republic . Ecuador . . . Egypt . . . . Estonia . . , Greece . . . From Great Britain Wylie, Sir F. V. *Ovey, Sir Esmond *Oliphant, Sir Lancelot (returned to London Sept. 30, 1941) Dodcls, J. L. *Charles, Sir Noel N. IL *Orde, Sir Charles W. Kerr, Sir Archibald Clark Snow, T. M. iLyall. G. Ogilvie-Forbes, Sir G. , P. B. B. tPatcrson, A. S. JBullock, G. H. *Lampson, Sir Miles Palairct, Sir Charles M. 'British representative. "Charged informally with the protection of certain Danish interests not under enemy control. 41 u/\urftnii;c. f\. aicirariAnui, u.d. amoassaoor to me u.d.d.n., conauctea DUSI- ness as usual July 24, 1941, the mornino after a German bomb had spattered the Moscow embassy with wreckage To Great Britain |Figueroa, Dr. Francisco A. . . Country Guatemala . Haiti From Great Britain 3 Lechc, J. H. JHillyer RAN. Benediktsson Pe'tur Honduras . Iceland Kemball, C. G. Smith C Howard Mohammad Ali Moghadclam . Sayid Ata Amin Xarine, Charles Iran Iraq ... Latvia , . . . . Bullard, Sir R. VV. . *Cornwallis, Sir K. Jde Lyndon, Baron Robert Aernout Balutis, Bronius Liberia . . . . Lithuania . Routh, A. C. Diaz, Alfonso R Gen. Shingha Shamsher Jung . . Bahadur Rana van Verduynen, Dr. Michiels . . Herdocia, Dr. C Mexico . . . Nepal . . . Netherlands Govt. (in London) . Nicaragua Bateman, Harold . Bet ham, Lt. Col. G. L. . Bland, Sir N. (iOoden, A. . ' Colban, E. A Norwegian Sandoval, R. Rivera Govt. (in London) . Panama . Collier, L. Dodd, C. E. S. ( Vacant) Benavides, A *Raczynski, Count Edward .... *Monteiro. Dr. Armindo Rodrigues de Sttau Paraguay . Peru Polish Govt. (in London) . Portugal . . . JBrickell, D. F. H. Forbes, V. C. W. *Dormer, Sir Cecil ** "Campbell, Sir R. (Vacant) Sheikh Ha6z Wahba *The Duke of Alba Salvador . . Saudi Arabia . Spain (Henderson, I. I,. Stonehewer-Bird, F H.W *Hoarc, Sir Samuel Prytz, Bjorn Gustaf Thurnheer, Walter Vimolnart, Phra Manuvedya . . *Aras, Dr. Tewiik Riistu Sweden . . . . Switzerland . Thailand . Turkey . . Mallet, V. A. L. . Kelly, D. V. Crosby, Sir Josiah * Knatchbull-Hugessen, *Winant, John G. . . . **. . . . United States Sir H. M. *Halifax, Viscount Castcllahos, Dr Daniel ,' . . v . Uruguay Stevenson, R. C. S. *Maisky, Ivan. , ; '; USSR *Cripps, Sir Stafford .Godfrey, Mgr. \V. (Apostolic Delegate) Carnevali, Dr. Atilano Soubbotitch, Ivan Vatican . . Venezuela Yugoslav Govt Osborne, F. d'A. G. Gainer, D. St. C. (in London) Rendel, G. W. * American Academy of Arts n j I o M. orc This organization was founded in 1904 by the dlllJ LBllBlS. National Institute of Arts and Letters. It is an honorary educational body limited to 50 members, who are elected from the membership of its parent body, the National Institute of Arts and Letters, also an honorary educational body limited to 250 members qualified by notable achievement in art, music or literature. Throughout 1941 a joint exhibition of the works of Childe Hassam and of Edwin Austin Abbey, both deceased members of the academy, was shown in the art gallery and was to continue in- definitely. The Abbey paintings were lent by Yale university. The art gallery and the permanent museum are open and free to the public from i to 5 P.M. weekdays (closed Mondays) and from 2 to 5 P.M. Sundays and holidays. The officers of the academy for 1941 were: Walter Damrosch, president; James Truslow Adams, chancellor and treasurer; Wil- liam Lyon Phelps, secretary. The other six directors were Stephen Vincent Benet, Van Wyck Brooks, William Adams De- lano, Charles Dana Gibson, Deems Taylor and Chauncey B. Tinker. . ; (F. GN.) American Academy of Arts and Sciences. The academy is limited to 800 fellows and 130 foreign honorary members, divided among four classes: mathematical and physical sciences, natural and physiological sciences, the social arts, the humanities. The officers for the year 1941 were: president, Harlow Shapley; corresponding secretary, Abbott P. Usher; recording secretary, Hudson Hoagland; treasurer, Horace S. Ford. The following papers were presented at regular monthly meetings: Tenny L. Davis, "The Identity of Chinese and Euro- pean Alchemical Theory" ; Edward L. Thorndike, 'The Develop- ment, Retention and Attraction of Superior Men"; Fletcher G. Watson, "The Approaching Comet"; James G. Baker, "Trends in Astronomical Optics"; Donald H. Menzei, "Motions in the Solar Atmosphere"; Thomas Head Thomas, "The Hitler War and Hemisphere Defense"; Harold E. Edgerton, "Stroboscopic Light and its Applications"; Herbert Brown Ames, "Canada's Major Contribution in the Present War"; Kenneth J. Conant, "The Architectural Revolution: an Historical Background for the New Architecture in America." May 14, 1941 awards were made from the Francis Amory fund for distinguished contributions to the treatment and cure of disease and derangement of the human genitourinary organs. Awards were made to Dr. Joseph F. McCarthy, to Dr. Carl Rich- ard Moore, to Dr. Hugh H. Young, and to a scientist in nazi- occupied Europe whose name was withheld. The recipients of prizes gave brief descriptions of their work. The following papers were read by title: Tenny L. Davis and Chao Yun-ts-'ung, "Four Hundred Word Chin Tan of Chang Po-Tuan"; J. H. Bartlett and R. E. Watson, "The Elastic Scat- tering of Fast Electrons by Heavy Elements"; Charles T. Brues, "Photographic Evidence on the Visibility of Color Patterns in Butterflies to the Human and Insect Eye." Grants in aid of research were made from the Rumford fund, the C. M. Warren fund and from the Permanent Science fund. (A.P.U.) American Academy of Political and Qnionno uUICllUc. 'Minister and consul-general. 4 anc * 5 ' I941 there was held the 45th annual meeting, with the general sub- ject "Defending America's Future," the proceedings of which, to- gether with a number of additional articles, appeared in the 42 AMERICAN ASSOCIATIONS AND SOCIETIES 43 July issue of The Annals. Other meetings included a session on "Canada and the United States*' held on Feb. 4, at which the Hon. Athanase David of Ottawa, Canada and John MacCormac of Washington, D.C. were the speakers, with Dr. F. Cyril James of McGill university presiding; a meeting on March 4, addressed by Gerhard Colm of the treasury department, Prof. 0, M. W. Sprague of Harvard university, and the Hon. Arthur A. Ballan- tine of New York, formerly undersecretary of the treasury, with Alexander Biddle of Philadelphia presiding, on "How to Finance National Defense"; and, on Nov. 14, a session on "When the War Ends," addressed by Senor Julio Alvarez del Vayo of Spain, Count Carlo Sforza of Italy and Sir Norman Angell of Great Britain. The volumes of The Annals, the academy's bimonthly journal, are unique in that each is a symposium of some special subject of current interest. During 1941 the six issues, including the July volume, had the following titles: "New Horizons in Radio" (January); "Billions for Defense" (March); "America and Japan" (May); "Defending America's Future" (July); "Crime in the United States" (September) ; "Public Policy in a World at War" (November). Student memberships, announced during 1940, totalled by the end of 1941 approximately 275. Under this arrangement students enrolled in educational institutions receive all of the privileges of regular membership, but at a cost of only $3 per year in- stead of the usual $5. The officers for the year were: Ernest Minor Patterson, presi- dent; J. P. Lichtenberger, secretary; Charles J. Rhoads, treas- urer; Thomas S. Hopkins, assistant treasurer; Herbert Hoover, Carl Kelsey and C. A. Dykstra, vice-presidents. Headquarters are at 3457 Walnut St., Philadelphia, Pa. (E. M. P.) American Association for the Advancement I Onlimmi The officers of the American Association for Ul vClullUvi the Advancement of Science for 1941 were Irving Langmuir, associate director of the research laboratory of General Electric company, president; Forest Ray Moulton, per- manent secretary; Otis W. Caldwell, general secretary; Charles Carroll Morgan, treasurer; and Sam Woodley, assistant secretary. The retiring president, Dr. Walter B. Cannon, delivered an address on 'The Body Physiologic and the Body Politic." In 1941 the membership of the association passed 21,500. Its affiliated and associated societies, 181 in number, had a com- bined membership, including duplications, of nearly 1,000,000. The association held three meetings in 1941, its annual meeting in Philadelphia, Pa., which closed on Jan. 2, a joint meeting at Durham, N.H., June 23-28, and a meeting at Chicago, 111., Sept. 22-27. The attendance at the annual meeting was about 6,000, including representatives from 46 states, four dependencies and nine foreign countries. At this meeting a total of 2,164 addresses and papers were delivered or read. The annual association $1,000 prize was awarded to Drs. D. R. Hoagland and D. I. Arnon for their investigations on plant nutrition. Eighteen grants in aid of research were given. One of the features of the meeting was a symposium on "Human Malarto," including 43 contributions by leading authorities, which has been published by the association as a 406-page volume. This is the i$th volume in its symposium series. Strange Malady The Story of Allergy, by Dr. Warren T. Vaughan, was published during the year as one of the associa- tion's non-technical series. The June meeting was held in con- nection with the celebration of the 75th anniversary of the found- ing of the University of New Hampshire, and the September meeting in connection with the celebration of the $oth anniversary of the founding of the University of Chicago. (F. R. Mo.) Amman Barters Association. ing field during 1940-41 under the administration of P. D. Hous- ton, chairman of the board of the American National bank, Nashville, Tenn. Four new divisions of the association, a consumer credit de- partment, a department of research in real estate and mortgage loans, a department of customer relations and a department of economics, all of which were established tentatively during 1939-40, proved effective in their operations and were made a permanent part of the association's activities. Both the new departments and the previously established divi- sions, sections and commissions of the A.B.A. devoted a sub- stantial part of their efforts to problems dealing with national defense financing, working in co-operation with congress and various government departments and agencies. Officers elected at the 6;th annual convention of the associa- tion in Chicago, Sept. 28-Oct. 2, 1941, for the ensuing year were: president, Henry W. Koeneke, Ponca City, Okla.; first vice-president, W. Linn Hemingway, St. Louis, Mo.; second vice- president, A. L. M. Wiggins, Hartsville, S.C.; treasurer, William F. Augustine, Boston, Mass.; executive manager, Dr. Harold Stonier, New York, N.Y.; secretary, Richard W. Hill, New York, N.Y.; senior deputy manager, Frank W. Simmonds, New York, N.Y.; national bank division, president, W. C. Bowman, Mont- gomery, Ala.; vice-president, S. A. Phillips, Louisville, Ky.; savings division, president, Stuart C. Frazier, Seattle, Wash.; vice-president, W. W. Slocum, Detroit, Mich.; state bank divi- sion, president, James H. Penick, Little Rock, Ark.; vice-presi- dent, Frank P. Powers, Mora, Minn.; trust division, president, Richard G. Stockton, Winston-Salem, N.C.; vice-president, Louis S. Headley, St. Paul, Minn.; state secretaries section, pres- ident, William Duncan Jr., Minneapolis, Minn,; first vice-presi- dent, Fred Bowman, Topeka, Kan. (L. GN.) American Bar Association. lish, Canadian and Latin-American jurists discussed hemispheric solidarity and world order. During the year the committee on national defense, headed by Edmund R. Beckwith, organized state and local bar committees to co-operate in the administra- tion of the Selective Service act, give free legal aid to men in service and their families, and furnish leadership in the main- tenance of civilian morale. Under the chairmanship of Judge John J. Parker, the committee on improving the administration of justice promoted its nation-wide program to integrate the judiciary, improve the jury system, simplify trial and appellate practice and the rules of evidence, and improve the procedure of administrative tribunals. Awards: annual medal of the association to George Wharton Pepper, former U.S. senator, for conspicuous service in the cause of United States jurisprudence; Ross prize of $3,000 to Willard Bruce Cowles of Washington, D.C., for an essay on "The Pros- pective Development of International Law in the Western Hemisphere as Affected by the Monroe Doctrine"; awards of merit to the Colorado Bar association and the Bar Association of St. Louis, Mo. Elected at the 1941 meeting were: Walter P. Armstrong, pres- ident; Guy R. Crump, chairman of the house of delegates; Harry S. Knight, secretary; John H. Voorhees, treasurer; Joseph D. Stecher, assistant secretary. (M. DN.) The 1 25th annual meeting of the American Bible society was held in May 1941. John T. Manson is president. Gilbert American Bible Society. 44 AMERICAN CHEMICALAMERICAN CITIZENS ABROAD Darlington is treasurer. General secretaries are Rev. Dr. Eric M. North, in charge of translation and foreign activities, and Rev. Dr. Frederick W. Cropp, in charge of activities in the United States. Rev. Dr. Francis C. Stifler is editorial and recording secretary. The society distributes about 3,700,000 volumes of Scripture annually in the United States. In co-operation with the British and Foreign Bible society, the Scottish Bible society and other missionary organizations, the Scriptures were translated into 1,051 languages up to the end of 1940, and more than 25,000,000 vol- umes of Scripture were distributed in 1940 throughout the world. The society's principal office is at Park avenue and 57th street, New York city, with branch offices in n cities in the United States and agencies, depositories and publishing offices in many other countries, in co-operation with the British and the Scottish Bible societies. The American Bible society elects a vice-president from each of the 48 states and among those so chosen have been Chief Justice Hughes, John R. Mott, William Lyon Phelps, J. L. Kraft and General Evangeline Booth. (F. C. ST.) AmoripQn Phomiral ^nniotv The society operates un AmCriUdll UllGllllUdl OUUtiiy. dcr a national charter from the 75th congress. In 1941 the presidency passed from Dr. S. C. Lind of the University of Minnesota to Dr. William Lloyd Evans of Ohio State university with Dr. Harry N. Holmes of Oberlin college as president-elect. Holmes became president Jan. i, 1942. National meetings in St. Louis and Atlantic City- showed attendances of 3,960 and 5,021 with 462 and 550 papers, respectively. The 96 local sections were more active than ever. The awards of the society: Karl A. Folkers, American Chemical society award in pure chemistry; David Rittenberg, Eli Lilly and company award; Claude S. Hudson, Borden award; Thomas Midgley, Jr., Priestley medal; Alexander Silverman, Pittsburgh award; Ferdinand G. Brickwedde, Hillebrand award; Linus Paul- ing, Nichols medal; Arthur W. Burwell, Schoellkopf medal; Ed- ward A. Doisy, Willard Gibbs medal. Membership passed 28,000. (C. L. Ps.) Aierican Citizens Abroad. American citizens living abroad, as of Jan. i, 1941, compiled from reports received from U.S. consulates in all parts of the world. This estimate includes only those whose residence abroad has a permanent or semipermanent character and therefore excludes tourists and all others whose sojourn abroad was considered to be only transitory. Attention is called to the fact that because of the disturbed conditions existing in certain areas of the world, it has been impossible in many cases for consular officers to obtain exact figures as to the number of U.S. citizens residing in their respec- tive districts. However, this statement, based on all available sources of information, may be considered as a reasonably accu- rate estimate of Americans living abroad as of Jan. i, 1941. SOUTH AMERICA Argentina 3.oog Bolivia 5*o Brazil 4,240 Chile 1,281 Colombia 2,797 Ecuador 562 Paraguay 92 Peru 1,692 Uruguay 210 Venezuela 3.394 Total 17,787, MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA British Honduras. Costa Rica . . . 160 1,237 MEXICO-Cont. ' El Salvador .... 283 Guatemala .... 1,128 Honduras 1,076 Mexico 13,014 Nicaragua 649 Panama 7,222 Total 24,760 WEST INDIES AND BERMUDA Bahamas 235 Barbados 345 Bermuda 588 Cuba ....... 5.531 Curacao i,743' Dominican Republic 3,158 Haiti 467 WEST INDIES Cont. Jamaica 703 Trinidad 637 Total 13,407 CANADA AND NEWFOUNDLAND Canada 164,354 Newfoundland . . 614 St. Pierre et Miquelon . . q Total 164,977 EUROPE Cont. Union of Soviet Socialist Republics .... 213 Yugoslavia . . . . 1,521 Total 50,001 AFRICA EUROPE Albania Belgium British Isles. . . . . Bulgaria Czechoslovakia . . . Danzig, Free City of Denmark Estonia Finland France Germany Gibraltar Greece Hungary Ireland Italy Latvia Lithuania Luxembourg . . . . Malta Netherlands . . . . Norway Poland Portugal Lisbon . Oporto Madeira Azores Rumania Spain and Canary Islands . . . Sweden .... Switzerland . . 589 530 230 4,. 5 00 170 57 6,145 80 218 10 895 38 337 3,000 5,iu S 2,086 358 2,382 14,567 70 140 14 145 774 726 239 5,855 Algeria 60 Belgian Congo . . . Egypt 940 552 iT 6JK Kenya Liberia 437 261 Morocco no Nigeria 543 Union of South Africa Tunisia Total 1,046 05 4.944 ASIA Arabia 35 Ceylon 74 China 6,700 French Indo-China . 124 Hongkong 1,280 India 3,509 Iran ; 117 Iraq 497 Japan 5,295 Netherlands East Indies .... 476 Palestine 8,500 Straits Settlements . 450 Syria 1,446 Thailand 90 Turkey (including Turkey in Europe) 263 Total FIJI ISLANDS SOCIETY ISLANDS . . 28,946 15 13 1,409 1,261 AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND Australia 1,832 New Zealand ... 293 Total 2,125 GRAND TOTAL .... 307,884 The following information concerning persons procuring pass- ports or renewals was compiled from passport and renewal appli- cations received by the department of state during the calendar year ending Dec. 31, 1940. OCCUPATION Accountant Actor Architect Artist Banker, broker' .... Buyer, exporter, importer Clerk, secretary .... Contractor Doctor Draftsman Druggist Engineer Executive Farmer, rancher .... Florist Housewife , Interior decorator . . . , Labourer (common) . . , Labourer (skilled) . . . . Lawyer Librarian , Manufacturer Merchant Miscellaneous , Missionary Musician None Nurse Religious ..-,...., Restaurateur Retired . . , Salesman Scientific Servant Student Teacher Technician Tradesman Writer Total 385 223 69 i59 408 404 1,840 83 459 63 IQ I,4Q<) 1,467 361 26 3,194 U 516 3,U9 413 59 269 406 095 775 172 1,809 400 506 78 385 1,0 1 H 3S3 210 2,270 1,408 438 26,253 DESTINATION Africa 396 Australia & New Zealand . 570 Bermuda 1,945 Canada and Newfoundland . 728 Eastern Europe 48 Far east 5,291 Latin America 15,508 Near east 607 Western Europe 1,528 OBJECT OF TRAVEL Commercial 3,628 Education 601 Employment 3,439 Family affairs 706 Health . 185 Personal business 5,4^4 Pleasure 10,380 Professional 446 Religious 1,352 Scientific ' 102 APPLICANT Native 22,963 Naturalized 3.290 Male 16,661 Female . 9,59 2 ADDITIONAL PERSONS INCLUDED IN PASSPORTS Adults 2,325 Minors 2,712 PREVIOUS PASSPORTS Number having been previ- ously issued American passports 8,882 AMERICAN COLLEGE OF SURGEONS A. F. OF L* DISTRIBUTION BY STATES, 1940 Alabama 107 Nevada 38 Alaska 17 New Hampshire 61 Arizona 239 New Jersey 1,302 Arkansas 77 New Mexico 81 California 5,330 New York city 4,262 Colorado ig 7 *New York state .... 2,148 Connecticut 517 North Carolina 156 Delaware 79 North Dakota 22 Dist. of Columbia .... 333 Ohio 856 Florida 554 Oklahoma 280 Georgia 151 Oregon 208 Idaho 56 Pennsylvania 1,216 Illinois 1,364 Rhode Island 124 Indiana 265 South Carolina 68 Iowa 160 South Dakota 34 Kansas 126 Tennessee 118 Kentucky 05 Texas 1,067 Louisiana . , 407 Utah 144 Maine 113 Vermont 30 Maryland 2g7 Virginia 251 Massachusetts 1,200 Washington 462 Michigan 467 West Virginia 60 Minnesota 265 Wisconsin 216 Mississippi 85 Wyoming 31 Missouri 358 Montana 87 26,253 Nebraska 72 * Exclusive of New York city. (R. B. S.) Travel Outside the Western Hemisphere. Because of the war, U.S. passports were not valid in 1941 for use in countries or territories outside the western hemisphere, unless the name of the country to be visited and the object of the visit were specifically stated on the passport by the department of state or under the department's authority. Persons desiring permission to travel outside the hemisphere were required to submit documentary evi- dence of the necessity for such trips. Citizens of the U.S. visiting countries within the hemisphere but travelling on belligerent ves- sels in the Atlantic ocean north of 35 N. lat. and east of 66 W. long, were required to obtain special permission from the depart- ment of state. Failure to do so might subject the traveller to prosecution under the terms of the neutrality act of 1939. American College of Surgeons. 500 surgeons of the United States and Canada, under the leader- ship of the late Dr. Franklin H. Martin, to ensure a standard of professional, ethical and moral requirements for every graduate in medicine who practises general surgery or any of its specialties. Fellowship, 1942: 13,300. Chairman, board of regents, Dr. Irvin Abell, Louisville, Ky.; president, 1941-4-; Dr. W. Edward Gallic, Toronto, Ont.; president-elect, Dr. Irvin Abell, Louisville, Ky.; treasurer, Dr. Dallas B. Phemister, Chicago, 111.; secretary, Dr. Frederic A. Besley, Waukegan, 111.; associate director and chair- man, administrative board, Dr. Malcolm T. MacEachern, Chicago, 111.; associate director, Dr. Bowman C. Crowell, Chicago, 111.; as- sistant directors, Dr. E. W. Williamson and Dr. Harold Earnheart, Chicago, 111. The organization originated hospital standardization, 1918, formulating minimum standards for approval and starting periodic surveys; 2,873 hospitals in United States, Canada and other countries were on the 1941 approved list; 376 cancer clinics in hospitals and 959 medical services in industry were approved in 1941. An approved list of medical motion picture films is also issued yearly. The college maintains a medical library and literary research department. The committee on graduate training for surgery was organized in 1937. Committees on cancer, archives of cancer, fractures and other traumas, and the Hall of the Art and Science of Surgery function through a department of clinical re- search. Sectional meetings were held in 1941 in Minneapolis, Minn.; Pittsburgh, Pa.; and Salt Lake City, Utah. The $ist Annual Clinical congress and the 24th Annual Hospital Standard- ization conference, attended by 3,000 surgeons and 1,500 hospital executives, were conducted by the college in Nov. 1941, in Boston, Mass. (M.T.M.) 45 American Economic Association. nomic association (founded in 1885) is to encourage economic research, issue publications on economic subjects, and stimulate thought and discussion of current problems from an economic point of view. The publications of the association consist of a quarterly, the American Economic Review, the Proceedings of the annual meetings, occasional monographs on special topics and a biennial handbook or directory of its membership and an informa- tion booklet. The program of the 54th annual meeting, held in New York city, in Dec. 1941, was devoted to current economic problems of vital importance affecting war and postwar adjust- ments. Officers for the year 1942 were: president, Edwin G. Nourse, Brookings institution; vice-presidents, Frederic B. Carver, Uni- versity of Minnesota; Frank D. Graham, Princeton university; secretary-treasurer, James Washington Bell, Northwestern univer- sity; elected members of the executive committee, J. Douglas Brown, Princeton university; George W. Stocking, University of Texas; Stacy May, Rockefeller foundation; Edwin E. Witte, Uni- versity of Wisconsin; William L. Crum, Harvard university; Leonard L. Watkins, University of Michigan. The 1942 edition of the handbook, in the form of a specialized "who's who," contained a list of approximately 3,500 members and 1,300 libraries and other subscribers. (J. W. BL.) American Federation of Labor. During 1941, as pre- viously, the Ameri- can Federation of Labor was mainly concerned with raising the level of life and work for the wage earners. The membership of the American Federation of Labor reached an all-time peak of 4< 569,056 members in good standing as of Aug. 31, 1941 the time of the annual report. The federation pledged its full and unqualified support of the government in its war program and subscribed to a no-strike policy on all defense projects. All unions were urged to forgo strikes during the period of the emergency. This means that the members of the American Federation of Labor voluntarily relin- quished their right to strike on defense production for the dura- tion of the war. At the same time the federation insisted that the workers be free from legislative restrictions on their economic rights, in the firm belief that the greatest benefit to all would accrue from voluntary action. The federation continued its efforts to raise the living stand- ards of the wage earners through increasing the share received by workers in accord with their increased productivity and re- sultant higher income from the industry to which they were at- tached. In its annual report the executive council of the federa- tion called attention to the fact that American industry had been able to increase wages substantially and at the same time main- tain profits. The federation kept watch over pending legislative proposals to make sure that provisions were incorporated for the enforcement of labour laws and other government activities of particular in- terest to labour. All efforts were made to prevent any impairment of the social gains made by labour in the past, such as fair labour standards and social security. The executive council of the American Federation of Labor and international executives of affiliated organizations pledged whole- hearted support to the government for the duration of the war in support of democratic principles. The federation and its affili- ates invested millions of dollars in defense bonds and were ex- pected to continue investments regularly. The American Federation of Labor also urged advance planning 46 AMERICAN for postwar adjustments. (See also CONGRESS OF INDUSTRIAL ORGANIZATIONS; LABOUR UNIONS; STRIKES AND LOCK-OUTS; UNITED STATES: History.) (W. G.) American Geographical Society. ":;"":, Fourth Wood Yukon expedition under the sponsorship of the American Geographical society was carried out under the leader- ship of Walter A. Wood, head of the society's department of exploration and field research, completing a program of aerial mapping begun in 1935 and continued on subsequent expeditions in 1937 and 1939. Mt. Wood (15,800 ft.) and Mt. Walsh (14,- 800 ft.) were both climbed in successful tests of the feasibility of supplying expeditions in mountainous terrain by parachute. A second expedition sponsored by the society and led by William 0. Field, Jr., of the society's staff spent several weeks studying glacier changes in southeastern Alaska in continuation of the leader's earlier studies in the region. The topographical map of the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, Colombia, South America, constructed from aerial photographs taken in 1939 under the society's sponsorship by the Cabot Colombian expedition was completed and published. Only one gold medal award was made the Charles P. Daly medal to Julio Garzon Nieto, chief of the office of longitudes and boundaries of the Colombian government. The society's publications during the year included an addition to the Special Publications series entitled "Focus on Africa" (a volume of aerial photographs taken on a journey in their own plane from Capetown to Cairo, with accompanying narrative and geographical description, by Richard U. Light and Mary Light) and a brochure entitled "European Possessions in the Caribbean Area." Compilation and drafting was also completed on a 3-sheet map of Latin America on the scale of i : 5,000,000 based chiefly on the sheets of the society's map of Hispanic America on the scale of i : 1,000,000. The publication of the society's quarterly journal, The Geo- graphical Review, was continued during the year, and to its other periodical publication. Current Geographical Publications a classified list of titles of books, articles and maps selected for inclusion in the Society's Research catalogue, which is issued in mimeographed form monthly except for July and August a new section, consisting of an annotated list of published photo- graphs of geographical interest, was added. (See also EXPLORA- TION AND DISCOVERY.) (R. R. P.) American Historical Association :' ,':':;:,:: 1889 "for the promotion of historical studies . . . and for kin- dred purposes in the interests of American history and of history in America." It had (Oct. i, 1941) a membership of about 3,600, chiefly recruited from the teachers and writers of history in U.S. and Canadian schools and colleges. Its national headquarters were in 1941 at study room 274, library of congress annex, Wash- ington, D.C. It was governed by a council elected at the annual meeting and supported by annual dues ($5) and by the income of an endowment fund of about $250,000. Its officers for the year 1941 were: president, Arthur M. Schlesinger, Harvard uni- versity; first vice-president, Nellie Neilson, Mt. Holyoke college; second vice-president, William L. Westermann, Columbia uni- versity; treasurer, Solon J. Buck, the National Archives; execu- tive secretary and editor, Guy Stanton Ford, Washington, D.C.; assistant* secretary-treasurer, Patty W. Washington. During 1941 it continued the publication of The American Historical Review, the leading historical journal in the U.S., and participated in the publication of Social Education, devoted to the problem of teaching the social studies in the school. (G. S. F.) SOCIETIES American Indians: see INDIANS, AMERICAN. American Institute of Architects. stitute of Architects is the national organization of the architec- tural- profession in the United States. It is composed of upwards of 3,100 individual members, each of whom is a qualified archi- tect. The members are grouped in 71 local chapters and 21 state associations. Through these organizations more than 8,000 archi- tects of the United States are under its aegis. The objects of the organization are: to organize and unite in fellowship the archi- tects of the United States; to combine their efforts so as to pro- mote the aesthetic, scientific and practical efficiency of the pro- fession ; to advance education in architecture and in the arts and sciences allied therewith, and to make the profession of ever-in- creasing service to society. Its principal activities are directed toward the achievement of the above stated objects of the organization. The officers of the institute were in 1941 : presi- dent, R. H. Shreve, New York; vice-president, Walter R. Mac- Cornack, Boston, Mass.; secretary, Charles T. Ingham, Pitts- burgh, Pa.; treasurer, John R. Fugard, Chicago, 111. Its head- quarters were at 1741 New York avenue, N.W., Washington, D.C. (R. H. SE.) part American Iron and Steel Institute. tivities of the American Iron and Steel institute during 1941 related to the steel industry's function in the national defense program. In connection with that program, the institute co- operated with the Office of Production Management, with the war and navy departments and with other government agencies concerned with defense. Important in the institute's defense activities was the compilation of statistical information relative to production, capacity, shipments, etc., from individual com- panies in the industry and the transmittal of such information to the defense agencies. In addition, numerous committees of metal- lurgists and other technical people within the industry served on institute committees, dealing with such problems as government specifications for iron and steel products, standardization and similar related technical subjects. Although activities in con- nection with the defense program were of major importance during 1941, the regular activities of the institute were con- tinued. Among these were the publication and distribution of booklets and' the compilation and publication of a series of freight tariffs on iron and steel products, from important origin points to principal destinations. Another important activity was the providing of accurate information concerning the industry to editors, writers and the public generally. Thousands of re- quests for such information were handled during the year. (W. S. To.) American Judicature Society. Tl :,, -,:'"::,:. ' incorporated in 1913 under the laws of Illinois to promote the efficient administration of justice. It first issued a series of bulletins surveying the fundamentals of judicial administration, and in 1917 began publication of the bi-monthly Journal, in its 25th volume (^941). The society's interest embraces the whole field of judicial administration, civil and criminal, state and federal, and it aids in improvement of bar and court organiza- tion, judicial selection and tenure, civil and criminal procedure, and legal education and admission to the bar. It has laid the foundation for virtually every reform accomplished and under way in its field. During its first 12 years it was supported en- tirely by Charles F. Ruggles, a layman. In 1941 it had 2,600 AMERICAN LAW INSTITUTE AMERICAN LEGION members, mostly lawyers, law teachers and judges. Membership is open to all, with dues at $5 a year. Subscriptions to the Journal are free. The society co-operates closely with the Amer- ican Bar association and with state and local bar organizations, all of which its Journal serves in the field of judicial admini- stration. Officers in 1941 were David A. Simmons, president; John J. Parker, Merrill E. Otis, Homer Cummings, Edward R. Finch and John G. Buchanan, vice-presidents; Thomas F. Mc- Donald, chairman of the board; Herbert Harley, secretary- treasurer; and Glenn R. Winters, assistant secretary-treasurer. Offices are in llutchins hall, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich. ,, , (H.HAR.) 47 law LdW since its or * anization > thc chief work of the American Law in- stitute has been a Restatement of the Law, best described as an orderly statement of the present common law. While the sections into which the restatement is divided arc written in statutory form, they are not presented to legislatures for adoption. The object of the restatement is to clarify and simplify the common law, but not to prevent its continued development by judicial decision. Prior to 1941, 15 volumes of the restatement, were pub- lished, including the law of contracts, conflict of laws, agency, trusts, restitution and security, besides large portions of the law of property and torts. During 1941 work on the restatement of the subjects, judgments, security and the fourth volume of the restatement of the law of property went forward. Work on the volume on the restatement of security was concluded and pub- lished. The institute was also engaged on two other projects of importance the drafting of a model code of evidence and statutes dealing with the administration of the criminal law in so far as it affects youths between 16 and 21 convicted of, crime. A model statute creating a treatment board to which such con- victed youths will be sentenced was adopted at the annual meet- ing in May 1940 and steps were taken in 1940 and 1941 to secure its consideration by state legislatures. In July 1941 the act was adopted in California. An act creating a model youth court was adopted at the annual meeting in May. The American Law institute was organized in Feb. 1923. Its object is to carry on constructive scientific work for the improve- ment of the law. Aside from the official members, who are those holding the leading judicial, bar and law school faculty positions, there are 725 life members; membership being a distinct profes- sional honour. The governing body is a council of 33. The members meet each year in Washington, D.C. All legal and other official publications of the institute must be first approved by the council and by a meeting of members. The president in 1941 was George Wharton Pepper; William Draper Lewis was director and chief of the editorial staff. The executive office is at 3400 Chestnut street, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, (W. D.L.) I oninn LuglUIlt the Amcrican tically went on a complete war basis to throw the full weight of its manpower, prestige and influence into America's all-out national defense effort. All its other ac- tivities were co-ordinated with this main program. During 1941 the Legion registered 900,000 of its members for national defense service; sent a mission at its own expense to Great Britain to study civilian defense functions in modern warfare; published the first handbook in the United States on civilian participation in air-raid warning and air-raid precaution- ary services; enrolled and trained tens of thousands of observers for air-raid warning posts; organized thousands of air-raid ob- servation posts; established a division of defense at national headquarters; participated in numerous air-raid warning tests LYNN U. STAMBAUGH waving to delegates of the American Legion convention at Milwaukee after his election as national commander Sept. IS, 1941. Beside him L Milo J. Warner, retiring commander conducted by the army and received high commendation; spon- sored test blackouts in many cities; conducted a recruiting cam- paign for the navy; pledged itself to promote service as flying cadets for the army and navy; suggested and participated in the aluminum collection campaign; invested post, department and national funds in defense bonds and supported bond-buying cam- paigns; established blood banks; organized "ham" radio networks for emergency service; enterec 1 into a nation-wide physical edu- cation campaign; worked with the FBI against spies and saboteurs; extended its free rehabilitation services to all mem- bers of the present armed forces; aided in finding employment for discharged conscripts. There was further expansion of the Legion's youth-training activities, with many thousands of pupils in 4') states participat- ing in a high school oratorical contest; 15,000 selected boys enrolled in 34 Boys' States in which they were taught the mechanics of American self-government; and with 400,000 boys under 17 playing in junior baseball. The long-range child welfare objective was fixed as the physical fitness of American childhood, and the known total of $6,279,469.67 was expended in emergency financial aid to 629,- 993 needy children, mostly for food, clothing and medical treatments; a rehabilitation program recovered grants totalling $2,603,747.49 in contested benefits for disabled veterans and their dependents. Membership was at the highest point in the American Legion and its four affiliated organizations. The 23rd annual national convention was attended by 200,000 members and their families in Milwaukee, Wis., Sept. 15-18, 1941. The convention went on record for repeal of the neutrality act, removal of geographic limitation on the movement of U.S. troops, indorsement of the forrign policy of the president and the congress, upholding the traditional U.S. policy of freedom of the seas, opposition to any appeasement toward the aggressor nations (Germany, Italy and Japan). The 1,462 official delegates, representing 58 continental and outlying departments and four posts not attached to any de- partment, named Lynn U. Stambaugh, Fargo, N.D., attorney, to succeed Milo J. Warner, Toledo, 0., as national commander, and chose New Orleans, La., as the 1942 convention city. National headquarters of the American Legion, and of its af- filiated organizations, the American Legion auxiliary, the Forty 48 AMERICAN LIBRARY ASS'N AMERICAN LITERATURE Membership, American leg/on and Affiliated Organizations, Dec, 31, 1941 15 c _c s o V 2. _ '/i f/; o 73 c IS IS ; !/5 c - 3 C ,yv . j3 g p - o i3 cr "v ^ ^ >P rt j? r" 'A 5 ( f j, 5! ^ ^ * ^ s G ^ 'o 4? M 'o "o S"^ ^ *O "o Ji 5 5 It 6 '-/ ^. 4J 6 6 '/- 'S ' h Q O Anii-rican Legion . 1,107, 07 1* jHjQ^O 11,790 75 American Legion Auxiliary g^Sf ^,so8 5 The Forty und Kight 4 s ;, i u>* ' t S > S 750 The Kight and Forty 7j?o* 51** ;^S *\ew high, t'^'crt-usf. and Eight, and the Sons of the American Legion, remained at the War Memorial building, Indianapolis. The Eight and Forty has headquarters elsewhere in Indianapolis. Frank E. Samuel, national adjutant, and principal administrative officer of the American Legion, was re-elected by the national executive committee at its meeting in Milwaukee, immediately following adjournment of the national convention. (L. U. S.) '< American library Association. librarians, library trustees and others interested in libraries. While most members are from the United States and Canada, all conti- nents are represented in the membership of 16,000. The associa- tion was founded in 1876, and is the oldest and largest organiza- tion of its kind in the world. Headquarters are at 520 North Michigan avenue, Chicago. Charles H. Brown, Ames. la., was pres- ident for 1941-42, and Carl H. Milam was executive secretary. The development of library service in the United States and Canada is the major objective of the association. Most recent figures reveal there are 47,000.000 people without public libraries in the two countries. The headquarters staff and many volunteer committees work to raise standards of library service, to main- tain standards of professional training, to improve the status of the profession, and integrate its interests with those of the federal and local governments. Committees contribute important service in book buying, anal- ysis of reading interests, federal and international relations, library administration, microphotography, work with the blind and for- eign-born. Of special significance during 1941 were the policies and programs for action, planned to adjust library service for maximum efficiency under defense and wartime conditions, A policy statement, ''Libraries and the War.'' was adopted at the annual midwinter conference, Dec. 28-3 r, 1941, and outlined the American public library's wartime program. Libraries will act as war information centres; sources of research material and books on technical and industrial skills; disseminators of authen- tic information about ideas and interpretations of events of vital importance to the civilian in \Vorld War II. Libraries also looked forward to a postwar "world order of decency, security and human dignity," in which the American people would make wise decisions based on knowledge the public library can supply. In a statement to the press in Jan. 1942, Mrs. Eleanor Roose- velt, assistant director of the Office of Civilian Defense, endorsed the service of libraries as war information centres, and announced official participation by the Office of Civilian Defense along lines recommended by the American Library association. More than 4,000 librarians and friends of libraries attended the 63rd annual conference in Boston, Mass., June 19-25, 1941. The theme of the conference was "Deeds, Not Words." Much time was devoted to the necessity of adjusting libraries to an enormous industrial expansion, a problem not then overshadowed by the li- brary's wartime responsibilities for civilian information. Awards, The Newbery award for the best contribution to chil- dren's literature during 1940 was conferred on Armstrong Sperry's Call It Courage. Robert Lawson received the Caldecott medal for They Were Strong and Good, judged the most distinguished pic- ture book for children published in the United States during 1940. Anne Eaton won the James Terry White award for her book Read- ing With Children. For the first time, two library trustees were officially cited by the association for their service to American libraries. They were Rush Burton of Lavonia, Ga,, and William E. Marcus of Montclair, NJ. National Book Drive. During the conference preliminary ac- tion was taken on plans for a national book drive for soldiers and sailors, sponsored by the American Library association. United Service Organizations and the American Red Cross. Althea War- ren, librarian of the Los Angeles public library, was named as national director. The campaign opened Jan. 12, 1942. Publications. More than 150 publishing projects were in vari- ous stages of completion during 1941. Of the total, 29 were pub- lished. Funds from the Carnegie corporation made possible the publication of 14 bibliographies and two surveys concerned with industrial and technical training for defense, the preservation of democracy and international understanding. Among books pub- lished during the year were Introduction a la Prdctica Biblio- tecaria en los Rstados Unhios by Carnovsky; Teacher-Librarian's Handbook by Douglas; Subject Index to Poetry by Bruncken; a preliminary American second edition of A. LA. Catalog Rules and Administering Library Service in the Elementary School by Gardi- ner and Baisden. In addition to books, bibliographies, indexes and pamphlets the association publishes the A.L.A. Bulletin, a monthly which in- cludes the annual reports; the Booklist, a semimonthly guide to the selection and purchase of current books; the Subscription Books Bulletin, a quarterly presenting critical estimates of sub- scription books and sets sold by canvassing agents; the Journal of Documentary Reproduction, a quarterly; College and Research Libraries, a quarterly published by the Association of College and Reference Libraries, a division of the A.L.A., and the Hos- pital Book Guide, a quarterly which evaluates books from the point of view of the invalid and convalescent. Finances. The association's endowment was in 1941 approxi- mately $2,152,000. The income of the organization in 1940-41 (excluding cash balances of $45,160 on Sept. i, 1940) was $369,- 240. About $194,220 was derived from membership dues, con- ference income, sales of publications, advertising, subscriptions, etc., and was used primarily tor membership and publishing ac- tivities; $98,900 came from outside sources in the form of grants for specific purposes. These grants supported such activities as relations with Latin- American libraries; provision of books for public libraries in Europe; purchase and storage of research material for the rehabil- itation of scholarly European libraries after the war; publication of book lists; the national defense program. (0. M. PN.) American Literature. The course of American literature in 1941 did not differ markedly from the general directions of the year before, but tendencies al- ready observable were strengthened by the flow of events. For ex- ample, the trickle of books on South America grew to a river, while increasing tension in the far east gave rise to the publication of a number of volumes discussing the position of the United States and Japan, and interest in the U.S. past continued unabated in fiction as well as nonfiction. In fact, the only strong trend in the novel continued to be toward the historical, although there were also a number of works of regional nature, and in several excellent series various rivers, cities and parts of the country found their students and historians. The popularity of John Gunther's Inside Latin America, one of the most widely read books, might have been at least partly attrib- utable to its author's reputation as a continental reporter, but it is safe to assume that the timeliness of the subject matter had much to do with its success. The latter quality, coupled with an excellent journalistic style, also played a large part in the reading of William L. Shirer's Berlin Diary: The Journal of a Foreign Correspondent, 1934-1941, the most popular of a num- ber of similar publications. Of books concerned with U.S. his- tory, Margaret Leech's Reveille in Washington, a detailed account of life in the nation's capital during the period of the American Civil War, won thousands of shocked and fascinated readers, and was also a landmark in the progress of social history, written with emphasis upon the details of daily living, rather than upon battles and politics. Of somewhat the same general nature was Carl Van Doren's The Secret History of the American Revolu- tion, subtitled An Account of the Conspiracies of Benedict Arnold and Others, and based upon a study of important docu- ments hitherto unexamined, a more scholarly and less popular work than that of Miss Leech, but one of first importance. The increasing significance of Pres. Roosevelt's position in world affairs added interest to two books about the presidency, Matthew Josephson's The President-Makers: The Culture of Politics and Leadership in an Age of Enlightenment, 1896-1919, and Edward S. Corwin's The President: Office and Powers, with the subtitle A History of Analysis and Opinion, a thorough study. The president continued his own account of his steward- ship in the second four-volume set of The Public Papers and Addresses of Franklin D. Roosevelt, presented with a special introduction and explanatory notes, and covering the years be- tween 1937 and 1940, with the following separate titles: 1937: The Constitution Prevails; 193$: The Continuing Struggle for Liberalism; 1939: War And Neutrality; 1940: War And Aid to the Democracies. Another of the important publications of the year was The Dictionary of American History in five volumes, edited by James Truslow Adams, with R. V. Coleman as managing editor. It was designed to be a companion set to the famous Dictionary of American Biography. In fiction, an average number of fresh new talents made their appearance, while older novelists contributed books up to their accustomed standards, although the year was without a startling novel, either from the point of view of exceptional popular suc- cess or artistic merit. A new short story writer of distinction, Eudora Welty, published her first collection, A Curtain of Green, with an introduction by Katharine Anne Porter, and also won second prize in the 0. Henry Memorial competition. Worthy of mention in poetry was the appearance of a number of long poems of merit, more or less^ evenly divided among poets of established reputation and younger people. Among these were William Rose Bcnet's autobiography in verse, often of high quality, The Dust Which Was God, Mark Van Doren's novel of pioneer days, The Mayfield Deer, John Gould Fletcher's story of Arkansas, South Star, Harry Brown's The Poem of Bunker Hill and Delmore Schwartz's Shenandoah, the title being taken from the name of the protagonist, a Jew born in the Bronx. Universal interest in aviation was evidenced by the popularity of Selden Rodman's excellent anthology of poems about flying, The Poetry of Flight. An important body of the work of Horace Gregory was represented in Poems: 1930-1940, and a complete collection of the verse of Ridgely Torrence in Poems by Ridgely Torrence, while all Edna St. Vincent Millay's sonnets were gath- ered into one volume called The Collected Sonnets of Edna St. Vincent Millay. The NovelOf older writers of fiction, John P. Marquand con- JOHN P. MARQUAND published another belt-seller about Boston, H. M. Put- ham. Enquire, in 1941. He is pictured in his home in New York city, under Grant Wood's "Parson Weems' Fable" tinued his ironical and penetrating analysis of the New England scene and character with H. M. Pulham, Esq., a novel about a Bostonian-cum-Harvard who longed for the rleshpots of Manhat- tan, but had to be content with the baked beans of his native city, while Ellen Glasgow produced another of her serious stories called In This Our Life, marked by her usual grasp of the fundamentals of the struggle for spiritual survival. The year saw the loss to American letters by death of Elizabeth Madox Roberts, whose last novel, Not by Strange Gods, gave further evidence of her unusual talent, although it did not reach the heights of her masterpiece, The Time of Man, and of F. Scott Fitzgerald, who left behind the unfinished manuscript of a novel, The Last Tycoon. Concerned with the career of a Hollywood magnate, it was published as a fragment along with The Great Gatsby and some selected stories, and served to emphasize the impressive and only partly realized possibilities of its author. The last of Thomas Wolfe's literary remains, a collection of fragments and stories called The Hills Beyond, seemed unlikely to bring about any change in the author's reputation. 49 50 AMERICAN LITERATURE Booth Tarkington, the most productive of the older writers of fiction, was represented by two titles, The Heritage of Hatcher Ide y a story of American youth in the depression, and The Fight- ing Littles, less important, but amusing. Robert Nathan also pro- duced two of his exquisite short novels, They Went on Together and Tapiola's Brave Regiment, both allegories for these times. Ben Ames Williams, one of the most prolific writers of fiction in the whole history of American letters, was represented by The Strange Woman, perhaps his finest and most ambitious work, while Mary Ellen Chase's Windswept, another panel in her Maine series, was generally regarded as her best work. Edna Ferber's Saratoga Trunk was reliable Ferber, full of colour and action, and headed, like Louis Bromfield's story of old New Orleans, Wild Is the River, straight for Hollywood, with very few changes. Evelyn Scott's uneven and still distinguished talent was in evidence in The Shadow of the Hawk, and Josephine Herbst's Satan's Ser- geants disclosed a pleasantly lighter side to the work of a novelist who has often seemed to suffer from an excess of social con- sciousness. Upton Sinclair's Between Two Worlds continued the story of our times begun in World's End in a readable fashion. Of a round hundred novels that represented 1 941*5 serious con- tribution to the annals of American literature, some 30 were his- torical, covering many parts of the U.S. and many periods of time. Carl Carmer, hitherto known as a poet and social historian, made his debut in this field with Genesee Fever, a well done story of post-revolutionary days in the part of the country which the au- thor knows thoroughly, while Frank 0. Hough continued his ac- count of war in Westchester county with The Neutral Ground. Other novels of the early days of the republic included Tom Pridgen's Tory Oath, with the Scottish Cape Fear country as its background; Captain Paul by Commander Edward Ellsberg, a stirring fictionization of the career of John Paul Jones; One Red Rose Forever by Mildred Jordan, based on the life of William, called Baron, Stiegel, the famous glassmaker; Waters of the Wilderness by Shirley Seifert, a stirring romance with George Rogers Clark as the hero; Green Centuries by Caroline Gordon, a novel of early days in Kentucky; Not Without Peril by Mar- guerite Allis, the story of Jemima Sartwell, Indian captive, and the upper Connecticut valley from 1742 to 1805; and Richard Pryne by Cyril Harris, a super-spy story of Long Island and New York in the days of the Revolutionary War. Two relatively unknown fiction writers swept to the front dur- ing 1941 with unusual books. One of them was Marcus Goodrich, whose Delilah was the tale of an over-age destroyer, with the Philippines as the background, which won universal praise from the reviewers for its originality, while the other was Budd Schul- berg, whose What Makes Sammy Run? was a stinging portrait of a Hollywood producer. Other younger writers whose work bright- ened the literary horizon included George Stewart, whose Storm, coming at the end of the year, promised to carry over well into 1942 and perhaps to start a new literary genre as well; Josephine Pinckney, hitherto known as a poet, whose Hilton Head was an ex- cellent historical novel of her own South Carolina; Maritta M. Wolf, whose Whistle Stop was a moving study of everyday people in a middle western community; Paul Engle, whose Always the Land marked the entrance into the fiction ranks of a good young poet; Mary King's Quincie Bolliver, the story of a girl in an oil town which had striking life and gusto the oil town boom also found treatment in Edwin Lanham's Thunder in the Earth and Robert Paul Smith, whose So It Doesn't Whistle was a shrewd and* ..entertaining story of life in contemporary New York. Short Stories. The death of Edward J. O'Brien after 27 years of editorship of The Best American Short Stories marked the end of the work of a man whose taste for a certain type of short story had had marked effect upon a whole generation. The 1941 volume was completed by Martha Foley, of Story magazine, who will continue the anthology. Harry Hansen surrendered the edi- torship of the 0. Henry Memorial Prize Short Stories to Herschel Brickell, whose first volume, the 23rd in the series, contained 20 stories, the prize winners being Kay Boyle's "Defeat," Eudora Welty's "A Worn Path," Hallie Southgate Abbett's "Eighteenth Summer" and Andy Logan's "The Visit." Biography. The important biographies of the year fell into two main groups, studies of famous families of great wealth, and of noted military and political leaders, principally of the revolu- tionary period. Among the first, the notable examples are Wayne Andrews's The Vanderbilt Legend: 1794-2940, a detailed account of this famous family and all its members; Harvey O'Connor's The Astors, which performs a like service for another clan of plutocrats; and Alfred I. du Pont: The Family Rebel by Marquis James, a full-length and colourful portrait of the most unusual member of the du Ponts of Delaware. In the second classification were The Admirable Trumpeter: A Biography of General James A. Wilkinson, by Thomas Robson Hay and M. R. Werner, a fine biography of one of the most complex and fascinating rascals in U.S. history; Horatio Gates: Defender of American Liberties by Samuel White Patterson, a strongly biased but important book about a neglected leader; James Madison: The Virginia Revolu- tionary by Irving Brant, an excellent full-length portrait of one of the most important of the founding fathers; and Anthony Wayne by Harry Emerson Wildes, an attempt to do justice to Mad Anthony, by a competent and scholarly biographer. Two naval commanders were given handsome treatment in Hulbert Footner's Sailor of Fortune: The Life and Adventures of Commander Bar- ney, U.S.N., and in Charles Lee Lewis's David Glasgow Farragut: Admiral in the Making, while a Civil War hero who was also found in the Spanish-American War was presented in full detail by John P. Dyer in Fightin 9 Joe Wheeler. Other notable biographies of the year included Blanche Colton Williams's sympathetic and engaging life of Clara Barton, sub- titled Daughter of Destiny; Garrett Mattingly's Catherine of Aragon, a triumph of American scholarship, since it was regarded as the best study yet made of Henry VIII's Spanish queen; William Henry Welch and the Heroic Age of American Medicine by Simon Flexner and James Thomas Flexner; The Doctors Mayo by Helen Clapsaddle, the full account of the careers of the magi- cians of Rochester, Minn.; Mr. Dooley's America: A Life of Fin- ley Peter Dunne by Elmer Ellis, an excellent portrait of the crea- tor of one of the best known of imaginary Americans and Irving Stone's Clarence Darrow for the Defense. Rivers and Regions. Books of a regional character have been published in ever-increasing numbers and 1941 had its full share. Additions to the excellent Rivers of America series, which was started under the editorship of the late Constance Lindsay Skin- ner and which was being carried on under the guidance of Stephen Vincent Benet, include The Kaw.\ The Heart of a Nation by Floyd Benjamin Streeter; The Brandywine by Henry Seidel Canby; and The Charles by Arthur Bernon Tourtellot. Other books 'about riv- ers, not in the series, included Great River of the Mountains: The Hudson, with photographs and text by Croswell Bowen, and an in- troduction by Carl Carmer, and Flowing South by Clark B. Fire- stone, more about the Mississippi. A fine new collection, called the American Folkway series, under the editorship of Erskine Caldwell, got under way with three excellent volumes, Desert Country by Edwin Corle, Pinon Country by Haniel Long and Short Grass Country by Stanley Vestal. Additions to the Ports of America series were Northwest Gateway: The Story of the Port of Seattle by Archie Binns, and Baltimore on the Chesapeake by Hamilton Owens. Other important books in this field included Joseph Henry AMERICAN MEDICAL ASSOCIATION SI Jackson's rousing history of early California, Anybody's Gold: The Story of California's Mining Towns; Dorothy Gardner's West of the River, the story of the Missouri country from the arrival of the first explorers to the coming of the first railway; J. Frank Dobie's The Longhorns, an account of the great days of range cattle raising in the west; Jeremiah Digges's In Great Waters, a book about the Portuguese fishermen of New England; Shenandoah and Its Byways by William 0. Stevens; and The Farthest Reach by Nancy Wilson Ross, a book about Washington and Oregon. Vermont and North Carolina, mountain states north and south, inspire people to write books about them in quantities, and the latest crop included The Reluctant Republic: A History of Vermont by Frederick F. Van der Water; Winter in Vermont by Charles A. Crane, with many beautiful photo- graphs taken by the author, and The Covered Bridge by Herbert Wheaton Congdon, with photographs by Edmund Homer Royce. Archibald Henderson wrote a two-volume history of his native North Carolina, The Old North State and the New, and Jonathan Daniels produced an impressionistic study in The Tar Heels: A Portrait, an addition to a new series of biographies of the 48 states. Oliver Carlson tried, with some success, to put all of California into A Mirror for Californians, and other books in this classification ranged from WiUiamsburg: Old and New by Hildegarde Hawthorne, the last volume illustrated by E. H. Suydam before his death, to Sodom by the Sea: An Affectionate History of Coney Island, by Oliver Pilat and Jo Rawson. South America. In addition to John Cunther's Inside Latin America, which found considerably less favour among South Americans than among Gunther's fellow countrymen, a number of good books on the neighbouring continent, its peoples and its problems, appeared during the year. Of those covering large areas with thoroughness were W. L. Schurz's Latin America, a sound and carefully accurate study, made by a veteran observer; Hubert Herring's Good Neighbors, which devoted most of its attention to the ABC powers, Argentina, Brazil and Chile, but which also covered the 17 remaining republics, and which was the result of long and patient study; The Other America by Lawrence Griswold, covering ten South American republics, with Panama and the Guianas thrown in, and written by a dis- tinguished archaeologist and geographer; A Pageant of South American History by Anne Merriman Peck, covering the whole story from pre-Columbian days to 1941, and an indispensable book on the subject; Charles Morrow Wilson's Central America: Challenge and Opportunity, which adds Colombia, Jamaica and Cuba to its nations of middle America, and Carl Crow's Meet the South Americans, interesting reading, but much more superficial than any of the other volumes mentioned. The question of hemisphere defense was also treated in several valuable books, such as Charles Wertenbaker's A New Doctrine of the Americas, which contains many sketches of the personali- ties helping to put the new doctrine into action, and which also discusses military and economic matters; Strategy of the Amer- icas by Cushman Reynolds and Fleming MacLeish, explaining the paths of possible attack and indicating defense resources; Hands Offt by Dexter Perkins, a complete history of the Monroe Doctrine; and United We Stand: Defense of the Western Hemisphere by Hanson W. Baldwin, the noted military and naval expert. Far East. The surprise attack of the Japanese on Pearl Harbor might have been avoided if the numerous books on the far eastern situation had been read by the commanders of the American forces. Most surprisingly prophetic of these was Hawaii, Restless Rampart , by Joseph Barber, Jr., which revealed fully the activities of the Japanese fifth column. Florence Horn's book on the Philippines, Orphans of the Pacific, was equally wise in its predictions, while many other books revealed the attitude of Japan toward the United States. Among them were the work of the veteran newspaper correspondent, Hallett Abend, called Japan Unmasked; Wilfred Fleisher's equally well informed Vol- canic Isle; Claude A. Buss's scholarly War and Diplomacy in Eastern Asia; and William C. Johnstone's The United States and Japan's New Order. A full discussion of the war strength of the two nations was set forth in Th,e Armed Forces of the Pacific: The Military and Naval Power of the United States and Japan by Capt. W. D. Puleston, U.S.N., retired, somewhat optimistic in tone from the American point of view. Mark J. Gayn's Fight for the Pacific was much more pessimistic and therefore closer to the mark. Both are valuable sources of information. Other important books on the far east included Edgar Snow's The Battle for Asia, a history of the Sino- Japanese War by one of the most noted correspondents in the orient; Joy Homer's Dawn Watch in China, a young writer's account of Chinese youth in wartime ; and Emily Hahn's The Soong Sisters, a lively biography of China's three outstanding women, the wives of Chiang Kai- shek and H. H. Kung, and the widow of Sun Yat-sen. Belles Lett res. The year produced at least one literary study of first magnitude in F. C. Matthiesen's American Renaissance: The Art of Expression in the Age of Emerson and Whitman, a long and profound discussion not only of the two giants men- tioned in the title, but also of Melville, Thoreau and Hawthorne. Edmund Wilson's The Wound and the Bow consisted of seven studies in literature, ranging from Dickens to Hemingway, and was done with this critic's usual perspicuity. The Opinions of Oliver Allston by Van Wyck Brooks, set forth in an unconven- tional autobiography Brooks's thoughts on life and letters, and was a positive declaration of faith, which called upon writers to help make a better -future. Literary biographies of note included That Rascal Freneau: A Study in Literary Failure by Lewis Leary, a book about the first U.S. poet; American Giant: Walt Whitman and his Times by Frances Winwar; and Crusader in Crinoline by Forrest Wilson, a life of Harriet Beecher Stowe. Autobiography. Among autobiographies of literary men, William Alexander Percy's Lanterns on the Levee was widely popular because it not only showed that a distinguished poet could write distinguished prose, but it revealed also a whole attitude toward life, that of a wellborn southerner, and it was a very plum pudding of anecdote. Ray Stannard Baker's Native American: The Book of My Youth, a kind of double auto- biography, since Baker and his nom de plume, David Gray son, have led separate careers, was valuable not only as history, but as a setting forth of the American way of life. In Young Man of Caracas T. R. Ybarra, the well known journalist, wrote a charming account of his family, truly Pan-American, since his father came from Venezuela and his mother from Boston. Mar- garet Deland's Golden Yesterdays, memories of Pennsylvania and New England, had a delightfully reminiscent quality, and the second volume of Josephus Daniels' long autobiography, Editor in Politics, was filled with good reading, as was Irvin Cobb's Exit Laughing and Rex Beach's Personal Exposures. Miscellaneous. The most notable volume of letters of the year was The Holmes-Pollock Letters: The Correspondence of Mr. Justice Holmes and Sir Frederick Pollock, 1874-1932, which was edited by M. A. De Wolfe Howe and which had an introduc- tion by John Gorham Palfrey, the civilized correspondence of two great men. (See also ENGLISH LITERATURE.) (H. BL.) American Medical Association. ':,' eludes more than 121,000 physicians. It is a democratic or- ganization, with representation in a house of delegates to which 52 AMERICAN RED CROSS ANAEMIA is elected yearly, on the basis of the number of physicians from each state, a given number of delegates. Its purpose is to guard and promote medicine in all of its branches. It maintains a de- partment quite similar to- the bureau of standards in Washington, D.C., in which are critically investigated and passed or rejected, drugs, medical apparatus, food and all types of materials which relate to medicine. It ascertains in these materials which are ad- vertised whether or not they are what they purport to be in their advertisements, and if they are not, their advertisements are not accepted in any reputable medical journal. It maintains a council on medical education and hospitals, with investigators who are constantly critically observing medical schools to be certain that they are maintaining the standards which are required for grade A rating in medical schools. It publishes the Journal of the Amer- ican Medical Association weekly, which has the largest circulation of any medical journal in the world. It also publishes 1 2 special journals such as the Archives of Surgery, Archives of Internal Medicine, etc. The officers of the association for 1941-42 were: president, Frank H. Lahey; president-elect, Fred W, Rankin; vice-president, Charles A. Dukes; secretary and general manager, Olin West. The American Medical association supports an annual meeting with lectures of general interest, given by recognized authorities, for the first two days, and sectional meetings of special interest, including one for general practitioners, for the last three days of the meeting. Before these sections are read papers having to do with the new developments in medicine. At the same meeting it organizes and presents a scientific exhibit in which everything that is new in medicine is presented in exhibits; with outlines, charts, figures, moulages, X-rays, statistical data, and with the exhibitors present who are familiar with all of their details, to discuss and demonstrate them to those who desire to learn from them. The American Medical association sent questionnaires to more than 180,000 physicians and tabulated under the punch card system more than 160,000 physicians as to their availability for military service. Doctors in various specialties were tabu- lated as to their specialty, but also rated as to their qualifications. At the meeting of the American Medical association in Cleve- land, a motion was passed by the house of delegates and for- warded to the president of the United States, the secretary of war, the secretary of the navy and the surgeons general of the army, navy and public health, advising the establishment of an agency for the procurement and assignment of medical personnel for the various departments of the government related to war. This agency, appointed by the president, was functioning in 1941 and was ready to supply medical men for the armed forces, selected through corps area, state and county committees, having in mind that no area is to be depleted and that the names be selected in terms of age, training and requirements of the armed forces. The headquarters of the American Medical association in Chi- cago employs 630 persons who conduct its many bureaus and pro- duce its publications. (F. H. L.) Amtrlcan Notional Rod Cross: see RED CROSS. Amtrican Samoa: see SAMOA, AMERICAN. American Youth Congress: see YOUTH MOVEMENTS. Renewed attention was directed to the haemolytic anaemias (due to blood destruction). In 1941, studies were reported on march haemoglobinaemia, favism, parox- ysmal nocturnal haemoglobinuria, Baghdad spring anaemia, bush- tea haematuria, and haemolytic reactions to transfusions from anti-Rh haemolysins, or from isoimmunization of group A2 indi- viduals against group AI blood, Haemolytic lysolecithin develops in stagnant blood. In the acute haemolytic anaemia following sulphanilamide or sulphapyridine poisoning, 30% of circulating blood corpuscles may be dissolved in 12 to 48 hours, resulting in shock. Haemoglobin is released from the cells and methaemo- globin and methaemalbumin are produced. Erythrocytes in the blood of patients with familial acholuric jaundice undergo auto- haemolysis (self-blood destruction) more rapidly than normal red blood cells, in vitro, at 37. Red blood cell survival after storage up to 1 8 days is but little inferior to fresh blood when transfused into patients with anaemia and the cells may be detected in the circulation for from 70 to 90 days. Symptomatic haemolytic anaemia, secondary to der- moid cysts, chronic lymphatic leukaemia, Hodgkin's disease, lym- phosarcoma, severe liver disease or pneumonia can be relieved only with the improvement of the underlying condition. The hae- moglobinuria in blackwater fever appears to be due to the action of the abnormal amount of bile salts, released from the affected liver, on the red blood cells injured (decreased lytic resistance) by the malarial infection. Extensive studies on the technical aspects of blood preservation (bank blood) for transfusion in anaemia were reported. Blood transfusions may be given directly into the bone marrow. Among blood substitutes for restoring blood volume are pectin and isinglass. Transfusions of concen- trated saline suspensions of red blood cells are effective in treat- ing anaemia. "Universal blood" (group 0) may be made safe for transfusion by the addition of group specific substances A and B. Combined universal blood (group cells and group AB plasma) may be given to patients of any group without previous testing or subsequent reactions. However, danger is not present in giving blood from a universal donor directly to patients, regardless of the donor's serum agglutinins. The regeneration of blood in trans- fusion donors is eight times more rapid when iron is given than when medication is not given. After the loss of 500 c.c. of blood, the return to normal, with iron therapy, requires n days. Anti-Rh factor in a mother has been reported as a cause of ery- throblastosis foetalis in infants who are Rh-positive. Depriva- tion of placental blood in the newborn results in a lowering of the red blood cell count and a decrease in the haemoglobin content of the blood. Lysine is an essential amino acid in haemoglobin regeneration. Casein digests parenterally have been used to form blood plasma protein. The stimulus to haemoglobin formation is greater when anaemia is more severe and regeneration is propor- tional to the degree of anaemia. Haemoglobin regeneration in anaemic trout is more rapid after the feeding of fly maggots, than after liver. Primary deficiency macrocytosis appears in persons with deficient nourishment. A familial microcytic anaemia, re- fractory to treatment, was described in an Italian family. Deficiency in natural prothrombin with prolonged bleeding time, as well as idiopathic hypoprothrombinaemia, have been found to be causes of haemorrhagic disease. Haemorrhagic anaemia of the newborn is prevented by the intravenous injection of 4-amino-2 methyl- 1 naphthol hydrochloride (vitamin K) into the mother before delivery. Vitamin B has been recommended for the treat- ment of residual neurologic complications in pernicious anaemia. In mild hypochromic anaemia in the adult, the addition of 3 mg. of copper sulphate to iron and ammonium citrate does not increase the effectiveness of irop in haemoglobin regeneration. Arrest of haemorrhage is produced by contraction of blood vessels (capil- laries) for from 20 to 120 min., during which time a clot forms and seals the opening. (R. Is.) BIBLIOGRAPHY. P. Robinson, "Favism in Children," Am, J. Dis. Chil- dren, 62:701-707 (1941); G. C. Ham and H. M. Horack, "Chronic Hemo- lytic Anemia with Paroxysmal Nocturnal Hemoglobinemia; Report of Case with Only Occasional Hemoglobinuria and with Complete Autopsy," Arch. Int. Med., 67:735-745 (1941); A . S. Wiener, "Subdivisions of Group A and Group AB; Isoimmunization of \2 Individuals against Ai Blood, with Special Reference to Role of Subgroups in Transfusion Reactions/' /. fm- ANAESTHESIA ANDREWS, FRANK M. 53 munol., 41:181-199 (1941); A. S. Wiener, "Hemolytic Reactions Follow- ing Transfusions of Blood of Hemologous Group; Further Observations on Role of Property Rh, Particularly in Cases without Demonstrable Isoanti- bodies," Arch. Path., 32:227-250 (1941); K. Singer, "Lysolecithin and Hemolytic Anem ,< . Significance of Lysolecithin Production in Differentia- tion of Circulating and Stagnant Blood,"./. Clin. Investigation, 20:153-160 (1941); C. L. Fox, Jr. and R. Ottenberg, "Acute Hemolytic Anemia from Sulfonamides," /. Clin. Investigation, 20:593-602 (1941); A. P. Richard- son, "Comparative Effects of Sulfonamide Compounds as to Anemia and Cyanosis," /. PharmacoL and Exper. Therap., 72:99-111 (1941); P. L. Mollison and I, M. Young, "On Survival of Transfused Erythrocytes of Stored Blood," Quart. J. Exper. Physiol., 30:313 327 (1941); G. Mer, D, Birnbaum and I. J. Kligler, "Lysis of Blood of Malaria Patients by Bile or Bile Salts," Tr. Roy. Soc. Trop. Med. and Ilyg., 34:373-378 (1941); F, W. Hartman, V. Schclling, H. N. Harkins and B. Brush, "Pectin Solu- tion as Blood Substitute," Ann. Surg., 114:212-225 (1941); N. B. Taylor and E. T. Waters, "Isinglass as Transfusion Fluid in Haemorrhage," Canad. M.A.J., 44:547-554 (i940; E. Witebsky, N. C. Klendshoj and P. Swan- son, "Preparation and Transfusion of Safe Universal Blood," J.A.M.A., 116:2654-2656 (1941); P. Levine, E. M. Katzin and L. Burnham, "Isoim- munization in Pregnancy; Its Possible Bearing on Etiology of Erythblasto- sis Foetalis," LAMA., 116:825-827 (1941); S. C. Madden, L. J. Zeldis, A. D. Hengerer, L. L. Miller, A. P. Rowe, A. P. Turner and G. H. Whipple, "Casein Digests Parenterally Utilized to Form Blood Plasma Protein," J. Exper. Med., 73:727-743 (1941); G. P. Bohlcndcr, W. M. Rosenbaum and E. C. Sage, "Antepartum Use of Vitamin K in Prevention of Prothrom- bin Deficiency in Newborn," J.A.M.A.. 116:1763-1766 (1941); R. G. MacFarlane, "Critical Review: Mechanism of Haemotosis," Quart. J. Mcd. t 10:1-29 (1941). e American Board of Anes- thesiology, Inc., became a major independent board whereas previously it had been an affiliate of the American Board of Surgery. The officers were: president, Ralph M. Waters, Madison, Wis.; vice-president, Henry S. Ruth, Philadelphia, Pa.; secretary, Paul M. Wood, New York city. In June 1941 the section on anaesthesiology of the American Medical association met for the first time at the annual meeting of the American Medical association in Cleveland, 0. The chair- man was Ralph M. Waters, Madison, Wis.; vice-chairman, Thomas J. Collier, Atlanta, Ga.; secretary, John S. Lundy, Rochester, Minn. In 1941 the National Research council set up medical and surgical advisory boards. One of the subcommittees to the com- mittee on surgery was the subcommittee on anaesthesia. The officers were; chairman, Ralph M. Waters, Madison, Wis.; sec- cretary, E. A. Rovenstine, New York city. The members were: Lewis S. Booth, New York city; Ralph M. Tovell, Hartford, Conn.; and John S. Lundy, Rochester, Minn. This subcommittee made recommendations concerning anaesthesiology problems to the surgeons general of the army, navy and public health. They prepared a manual entitled " Fundamentals of Anesthesia" for the use of officers and others employing anaesthetic agents or supervising administration of them. This manual was published by the American Medical association. Thus the specialty of anaesthesiology was finally and for the first time formally estab- lished on a basis of a relative equality with other specialties. "Recommended Safe Practice for the Use of Combustible Anesthetics in Hospital Operating Rooms," was an outline de- veloped by the conference committee on operating room hazards. Their recommendations tended to renew confidence in cyclopro- pane and other inflammable anaesthetic agents in institutions in the United States where an attempt had been made to avoid the use of these agents, although because of their great value their loss was keenly felt. The contribution of Lemmon of the method of continuous spinal anaesthesia was used in a greater number of cases. Re- ports of a number of variations in the technique of its use appeared. This is an outstanding development in anaesthesia and each year should see it gain in favour. Use of intravenous anaesthesia continued to increase, and a new agent was being investigated in 1941 which, it is hoped, will be an improvement on evipal soluble (n-methyl-C-C-cyclo- hexamyl-methyl barbituric acid) and pentothal sodium (sodium ethyl [i-methylbutyl] thiobarbiturate). Indications for, and contraindications to, its use have not been established definitely. It is of the greatest value when it is combined with other agents and methods and when the dose of it that is used is not larger than from i gm. to 2 gm. The administration of oxygen or the mixture of half oxygen and half nitrous oxide considerably in- creased the usefulness of the method. The activity of anaesthetists in connection with aspiration of material from the tracheobronchial tree during and after opera- tion was greatly stimulated by reports of excellent results ob- tained when this procedure is available and is used early. Not only is it of value as a prophylactic measure, but it is of definite therapeutic value in the treatment of atelectasis. Investigations were concerned chiefly with new anaesthetic agents, especially for intravenous use. An attempt was being made to explain why certain agents should be avoided in the presence of shock, not only in civilian practice but in military practice. (See also SURGERY.) (J. S, L.) BIBLIOGRAPHY.- American Medical association, "Fundamentals in Anes- thesia" (in publication); Report of Council on Pharmacy and Chemistry, "Cyclopropane (with Special Reference to Explosions)," /.A.M. A., 116: 2502-2504 (1941); W. T. L'emmon and G. W. Paschal, Jr., "Continuous Spinal Anesthesia, with Observations on First Five Hundred Cases," Penn- sylvania M.J., 44:975-981 (1941); R. C. Adams and J. S. Lundy, "Intra- venous Anesthesia: Its Increased Possibilities when Combined with Various Other Methods of Anesthesia," Southwestern Med., 25:8-10 (1941); J. S. Lundy, "Choice of Anesthetic Agents and Methods- Their Relative Value and Recent Associated Advances," Proc. Inter st. Postgrad. M.A. North America (1940) pp. 298-301 (1941); Achilles L. Tynes, William W. Nichol and Sidney C. WiRgin, "Anesthesia for Military Needs," War Medicine, 1:789-798 (1941). (1876-1941), U.S. author, Was born Sept I3 in Camden, Ohio. He was the third child in a family of eight arid his father was a struggling harness maker. Young Anderson showed little interest in school; at 14 his schooling stopped and at 17 he became an itinerant housepainter. He wandered through the bustling mid- western states, keenly alive to the growth of industrialization in the 'QOS. In 1898 he joined the army, saw service in Cuba during the Spanish-American War and returned to Ohio a hero. He became manager of a paint factory, but, dissatisfied with office routine, he quit suddenly and went to Chicago where he worked in an advertising agency. There he met, through his brother Karl, a magazine artist, Chicago's literary titans Dreiser, Sand- burg and Hecht. Under their influence he wrote his first novel, Windy McPher son's Son, published in 1916. In 1919 he wrote Winesburg, Ohio, a collection of short stories about small-town life, regarded as his best and most lasting work. Later he bought a small-town weekly in Virginia and edited this paper for a while before turning it over to his son. Among his publications are Tar (1927); Hello Towns (1929); Perhaps Women (1931); Beyond Desire (1933); Death in the Woods (1933); No Swank (1934) ; Puzzled America (1935) ; Kit Brandon (1936), and Plays (1937). He died March 8 in Colon, Panama; he had been tour- ing South America with his wife. (See Encyclopedia Britannica.) Anrirou/c Frank Uavwpll (l884 ~ > u s army offi " AllUICfVd, rlallll MdAWCll cer, was born Feb. 3 in Nash- ville, Tenn. He was graduated from West Point, 1906, became a cavalry lieutenant and was promoted through the grades to colonel in 1935. Gen. Andrews saw service in the Philippines, 1906-07, and in Hawaii, 1911-13. He was a major with the signal corps during World War I and served with the U.S. army of occupation in Germany, 1920-23. Upon his return to the U.S. he became executive officer of Kelly field, 1923-25, and was a member of the war department general staff, 1934-35., He was appointed temporary major general of the air corps in 1935 and major general commanding G.H.Q. air force, 1936-39. While in the latter post, Andrews piloted an army air corps amphibian ANGLING ANTARCTIC EXPLORATION bomber 1,425 mi. from San Juan, Puerto Rico, to Langley field, Va., setting a new world's distance and straight-line record for amphibian planes. In 1939 he was named assistant chief of staff for all army air operations and training. In Sept. 1941 he was promoted to the rank of lieutenant general and head of the Caribbean defense command and the Panama canal department. Women anglers in 1941 established four new marks j n corn p e tjtion strictly for their sex. But it fell to men to contribute the year's two outstanding catches. The most notable of these was a 737-lb. blue marlin, taken July 1 6 by J. Victor Martin at Bimini, British West Indies. This huge fish, caught on 39-thread line, established a new all-tackle record for the species. It was 13 feet i inch in length. The second all-tackle world's record was set in the channel bass division by Captain B. R. Ballancc, off Cape Hatteras, North Carolina, on Nov. 29. His catch tipped the scales at 75 Ib. 8 oz., breaking a record that had existed for 1 2 years. The outstanding women's catch was made by Mrs. Maurice Meyer, Jr., at Bailey's Island, Maine, Aug. 3, when she landed an 8i8-lb. tuna in 3! hours to establish a new women's all-tackle record for this species. Second largest catch fell to Mrs. Sarah Farrington a 659~lb. broadbill swordfish caught June 12 off Tocapilla, Chile. This new women's all-tackle record for the species also constituted an all-time record for 24-thread line. Other women's all-tackle records established during 1941 were a wahoo of no Ib., taken April i at Walker Cay, British West Indies, by Mrs. B. Davis Crowninshield on 39-thread line in eight minutes' time, and a dolphin of 58 Ib. caught May 10 off Morro Castle, Havana, Cuba, by Mrs. James Simpson, Jr. This fish was caught on 9-thread line. THE BOATS OF 800 FISHERMEN dotted Puget sound, Wash, at dawn o Sept. 7, 1941 as the annual Ben Paris salmon derby got under way. The prize catch A! 4h *4\j uuoiohA^ OK. Ih r \ nunPAt There were no new world's records established by fresh-water anglers. On the basis of all information available, the largest inland-water fish taken during the year was a muskalonge of 56 Ib. 8 oz., caught by Robert D. Shawvan at Lake-of-the-Woods, Ontario. It fell short of the world's record established in 1940 by Percy P. Haver by a full six pounds. (B. BH.) A territory under the joint sov- ereigmy l Girt. Britain and Egypt in northeastern Africa, south of Egypt. Area 967,500 sq. mi.; pop. (est. Jan. i, 1941) 6,362,852. Chief towns: (pop. Jan. i, 1941) Khartoum, incl. Khartoum North (61,641); Omdurman (117,041); Port Sudan (26,255); Atbara (19,757); El Obeid (33328). Governor-general: Lt.-Gen. Sir Hubert Huddlcston; languages: English and Arabic; religion: Mohammedan. History. The security of the Sudan, which in view of its long common frontier with Eritrea and Abyssinia had been seriously threatened by the entry of Italy into the war, showed signs of rapid improvement at the beginning of 1941. The Italians had already been forced to leave Gallabat, and on Jan. 20 the Sudan government was able to reoccupy the important frontier town of Kassala. Meanwhile revolt was spreading in Abyssinia and by the end of January the Emperor Haile Selassie had moved into Abyssinia to put himself at the head of his own people. The Italians evacuated Kassala without offering serious resistance and retired to the mountains round Cheren after Agordat and Barentu had been taken early in February. Kurmuk, the last post on Sudan soil remaining in the hands of the Italians, was reoccupied Feb. 20. The Italian positions round Cheren were strong and were stubbornly defended; and it was not until March 27 that this city was taken after severe fighting. Asmara was not defended, and with the occupation of Addis Ababa on April 5 and the surrender at Amba-Alagi on May 20 the campaign so far as the Sudan was concerned was virtually at an end. There remained an Italian force at Gondar which was left undisturbed during the rainy season but which was compelled to surrender on Nov. 27. The fear of invasion and destructive air raids on Khartoum was thus removed. Throughout the campaign the Sudan defense force, consisting of Sudan native troops, per- formed its part in a manner which reflected credit on its mem- bers and its leadership. The strain on the resources of the Sudan, particularly the railways, caused by the movement and main- tenance of large bodies of troops, was heavy but was adequately met. Commerce was active and the economic position of the country generally was good; the cotton crop found a ready mar- ket and trading in the other staple products of the Sudan was maintained. (B.H. B.) Education. (Jan. i, 1941) Government schools: elementary schools 137, scholars 17,184; intermediate schools n, scholars 357; Gordon Memorial college, scholars 1,308; state-aided Koranic schools 501, scholars 23,000; scholars at non-government (mission) schools, 12,925. Banking and finance. In 1940: revenue 7,143,731; expenditure 7,- 052,899; public debt (Dec. 31, 1940) 10,023,570. Trade and Communication. In 1940 imports were valued at 3,695,776; the value of exported merchandise was 5,024, 088, of which cotton ac- counted for 2,894,833 and gum 680,969; re-exports 209,871. Com- munication: roads, suitable for motor traffic, all weather, c. 1,000 mi.; rail- ways 1,991 route mi.; river service 2,325 mi.; motor vehicles licensed (1937) 4.354 cars, commercial vehicles and cycles; telephone subscribers (1938) 2,383- Agriculture and Mineral Production. (1938-39) Production: (in metric tons) cotton-seed (1939-40) 102,000; ginned cotton (1939-40) 50,600; millet (1937-38) 315,000; sesamum 33,200; maize 10,300; wheat 8,200; groundnuts 8,600; barley 1,600; gold (1938) 252 kg. Angola: see PORTUGUESE COLONIAL EMPIRE. Animal Fats: see VEGETABLE OILS AND ANIMAL FATS. Annam: see FRENCH COLONIAL EMPIRE. Anniversaries and Centennials: see CALENDAR, 1942, page xx. Antarctic Exploration: see EXPLORATION AND DISCOVERY. ANTHROPOLOGY 55 * m P rtant development in an- thropology in 1941 was the formation of the Society for Applied Anthropology to "promote scientific investigation of the principles controlling human relations and to encourage the wide application of these principles to prac- tical problems." Since 1920, anthropology has provided the unifying centre for the various specialists concerned with the study of human rela- tions. This is due to the fact that anthropology is primarily a field science and deals with man as. a whole, that is, with all aspects of human relations in all environments, all institutions and for all peoples. Because of this general point of view, anthropological methods and principles have more and more come to be used in the fields of business and political administra- tion, in psychiatry, social work, education, etc., in the solution of practical problems of human relations. In order to further this development, and in particular, to encourage the testing of hypotheses as a routine process in the field of human relations, the Society for Applied Anthropology was formed. The first issue of its journal, Applied Anthropology, is good evidence of the way in which the anthropologist deals with prob- lems of his own society even more than with problems of the non-European groups. It includes an analysis of personnel and labour difficulties in industry together with suggestions as to ways in which they can be eliminated or kept under control ("Organization Problems in Industry/' E. C. Chappie); an in- vestigation of the lack of success of settlement houses in ac- complishing their objectives, which is shown to be due to the failure to base their policies upon the actual situation in the groups whom they are trying to help, and also includes a case where the use of natural leaders from foreign groups brought about the successful completion of a project ('The Social Role of the Settlement House/ 5 William F. Whyte); a general discus- sion of the way a national morale program should be adminis- tered in the United States ("On Implementing a National Morale Program," Margaret Mead); an analysis of the failure of the program of the department of interior to make the Eskimo self- supporting in terms of a reindeer economy because of not adapt- ing the program to Eskimo ways of life ("Native Economy and Survival in Arctic Alaska," Froelich Rainey) ; a detailed analysis of the administration of a resettlement project in western Penn- sylvania with special emphasis on the human factors which condi- tion successful planning ("Community Resettlement in a De- pressed Coal Region," F. L. W. Richardson, Jr.); and a critical review of Roethlisberger and Dickson's, Management and the Worker, the first systematic use of anthropological methods in industrial research ("Towards a Control System in Industrial Relations," C. M. Arensberg). The year 1941 also saw the publication of the first results of two important researches on present-day United States com- munities which had been under way for over a decade under the direction of Professor W. L. Warner of the University of Chi- cago, formerly of Harvard university (The Social Life of a Modern Community, W. L. Warner and P. S. Lunt, Yale Uni- versity press, New Haven; Deep South, A. Davis, B. B. Gardner and M. R. Gardner, University of Chicago press, Chicago). The first of these is a study of a New England community, called "Yankee City," and the volume which appeared (other volumes were to follow) is a statistical and qualitative description of the six social classes postulated by the authors and a discussion of their interrelationships. Deep South is a similar study of a southern city and its rural hinterland in which the emphasis is on the relations of Negroes to the whites. According to the authors, each of these groups forms a caste, and the two castes are 4hen subdivided into classes, much in the same way that Yankee City is said to be. After describing the differences in cultural activities of each class and caste, an analysis is given of the economic system of the area with special emphasis on tenancy, the plantation system as well as upon the kind of economic organization of the urban area. Outside of the work done in the United States, a number of studies appeared in 1941 which were of interest in furthering knowledge of the relationships between non-European and European groups, the field commonly called acculturation. A general survey of the situation in Polynesia, Melanesia and Micronesia was completed by Felix Keesing (The South Seas in the Modern World, F. Keesing, with a foreword by J. B. Cond- liffe, Institute of Pacific Relations International Research series, John Day, New York). This book is an attempt "to define com- prehensively the political, strategic and economic role these oceanic islands play in the world today, and especially the mod- ern experience and problems of the peoples native to them." The book is, of course, extremely timely, but it is primarily im- portant as an analysis of the way in which vast human and economic resources have been wasted through lack of skilful planning by responsible administrators, which is primarily due to the failure to base planning policies upon the existing systems of human relations in the several islands. Another book in the oceanic field which appeared in 1941 is a general survey of the Maori of New Zealand with the stress laid on their present-day situation (The Maori People Today, edited by I. L. G. Suther- land, Oxford University press, Oxford). The book provides the reader with an excellent account of the way these fine people have adjusted themselves to modern civilization. In the field of acculturation, several other studies are of in- terest. In January, the American Anthropologist published a group of papers prepared under the leadership of M. J. Hersko- vits ("Some Comments on the Study of Culture Contact," M. J. Herskovits; "Some Aspects of Culture Change in the Northern Philippines," Fred. Eggan; "Culture Change among the Nilgiri Tribes," D. G. Mandelbaum ; "World View and Social Relations in Guatemala," Sol Tax; "Acculturation among the Gullah Ne- groes," W. R. Bascom; "Some Aspects of Negro-Mohammedan Culture-Contact among the Hausa," J. H. Greenberg; American Anthropologist, vol. 43, no. i). Of particular interest is a study by J. F. Embree of the Japanese in Hawaii ("Acculturation among the Japanese of Kona, Hawaii," J. F. Embree, Memoirs of the American Anthropological Association, no. 59). There is considerable evidence given which can provide a background for administrative action and which can ?erve as a basis for future work in defining the status of different elements of the Japanese population in Hawaii. As Embree shows, the primary division in loyalties is between the older generation who look towards Japan for leadership and the younger who are loyal to the United States. For the purposes of the administrator, an analysis of the intra-family relationships of groups of Japanese would quickly provide the touchstone for testing where disloyalty would occur. In contrast to the above methods generally used in the study of acculturation, Robert Rediield contrasted four communities in Yucatan, ranged in order of complexity, a village of tribal Indians, a peasant village, a town serving as trading centre between Spanish and Indian groups, and the city of Merida (The Folk Culture of Yucatan, R. Redfield, University of Chicago press, Chicago). Red- field found that there is a progressive increase, as one moves from the tribe to the city, in what he calls the "disorganization" of culture as judged by the fact that "meanings attached to acts and objects are relatively few and inconsistent," in the amount of "secularization," and in "individualization." As a ^result, he postulates for Yucatan in the future a merging of the Spanish and Indian influences and the formation of a class society with 56 ANTI-AIRCRAFT GUNS ANTI-SEMITISM racial and cultural differences disappearing. Also of interest in the Central American field are two mono- graphs, one on Guatemala and one on the Maya ("Economics of a Guatemalan Village," C. Wagley, Memoirs of the American An- thropological Association, no. 58; Maya Indians of Yucatan, M. Steggarda, publication 531, Carnegie Institution of Washington. Other studies of general interest include Whiting's study of teaching and learning among the Kwoma of the Sepik river, New Guinea (Becoming a Kwoma, J. W. M. Whiting, Yale University press, New Haven) in which he describes childhood, adolescence and adulthood among these people and then analyzes the data in terms of learning theory; Ford's autobiography of a Kwakiutl chief (Smoke from their Fires, C. S. Ford, Yale University press, New Haven) ; and Schapera's discussion of the changes in the family system of the Kgatla of Bechuanaland after white influence for over a century (Married Life in an African Tribe, I. Schapera, with an introduction by B. Malinowski, Sheridan house, New York). The year 1941 also saw the publication of the Sapir Memorial volume (Language, Culture and Personality, Essays in Memory of Edward Sapir, edited by L. Spier, A. I. Hallowell, S. S. Newman, Sapir Memorial Publication fund, Menasha, Wis.). This volume is divided into four major sections: the first deals with problems of linguistic classification, the second with linguistic behaviour and thought, the third with the development of culture patterns and the fourth with culture norms and the individual. The con- tributors, all former students of Sapir, provide an effective im- plementation of Sapir's point of view. National Defense. W T ith the outbreak of war, and indeed for some time previous, anthropologists were increasingly concerned with activities connected with national defense. There are roughly three major headings under which these activities may be grouped First, the use of anthropologists as experts on those parts of the world in which they have done research and on which they are specially fitted, by the fact of doing field work, to give advice useful in military and economic warfare. Second, the use of an- thropologists in the United States to assist in the many problems connected with the war. These include the study of industrial and community morale, the analysis of the various problems of ethnic groups, the study of food habits with its special emphasis upon raising the national standard of diet, the study of methods of administration and organization, etc. Third, the use of anthro- pologists in preparing the groundwork for a sound peace settle- ment. Many responsible persons believed that World War II was the result of ignoring the factor of human relations in the peace settlement after World War I. For that reason, several agencies, both governmental and private, began to gather information about the important countries in the world so that any organization set up after the war would be based upon known facts about the way in which human beings behave in the several countries in question. In this area, anthropologists played an important part in guiding the research activities. (E. D. C.) Anti-Aircraft Guns: see MUNITIONS OF WAR. Antlqua: see WEST INDIES, BRITISH. Antilles, Grtattr and Ltsstr: see WEST INDIES. Anti-Lynching Legislation: see LYNCHINGS. Although there was some production of antimony metal in the United States from domestic ores during World War I, since then ore production has been small, and the only metal recovery was that in antimonial lead. During 1941 there was a large smelter in Laredo, Tex., operating on Mexican ores and producing metal and oxide; a smaller plant near Los An- geles, Calif., has also been working Mexican ore, and other plants have been producing oxide from Mexican and South Ameri- can ores. Output at both of the smelters was increased in 1941, and the Laredo plant reported the treatment of some domestic ore. In addition, a third smaller smelter was started at Kellogg, Ida., in March 1940. The output reported in 1940 included 494 short tons of recoverable metal in ores and concentrates, 2,077 tons of anti- mony in antimonial lead, part of which was recovered from for- eign ores, and 11421 tons of secondary metal. Imports of metal, needle antimony and oxide were reduced sharply, the respective amounts being 209 tons, 228 tons and none in 1940, while there was a two-thirds increase in the metal content of imported ores to 15,733 tons, 35% of which came from Bolivia, 4% from Peru, and 60% from Mexico. Ore imports at the end of the third quar- ter of 1941 were approximately equal to the total for 1940. Chinese operations and shipments were seriously cramped by Japan, and in December with the United States at war with Japan, shipments from China might no longer be possible, although loans were made to China by the United States, payment of which was to have been made in antimony. Increasing demand in the United States would have to be met from Mexicb and South America. Moderate tonnages of 50% ore were shipped from South Africa to England, and a plant for the recovery of by-product antimony from the treatment of other ores was installed at Trail, B.C., Canada. (G. A. Ro.) Anti-Saloon League of America, Inc. America is a nonpartisan, interdenominational, federated organi- zation formed in 1895 for the purpose of temperance education and legislation. Its work in 1941 was devoted to public educa- tion on the alcohol problem, advocacy of total abstinence from all alcoholic beverages and of legislation to minimize the evils growing out of their use. During 1941 the legislatures of 43 states met. Some states tightened restrictions on sales to minors; women bartenders were prohibited in Illinois and Pennsylvania; a number of states in- creased penalties for drunken driving, and New York and Oregon provided for chemical analyses of body fluids for had-been-drink- ing drivers involved in accidents. Numerous other restrictive laws were enacted. Many attempts to liberalize existing liquor laws were defeated. In South Carolina the league supported the enactment of a state- wide prohibitory law, which the people in an advisory referendum in 1940 had instructed the legislature to pass with a provision to replace liquor revenue by some other form of taxation. This measure failed of enactment because of inability to agree upon tax legislation to replace liquor revenue. The league continued its efforts for local option during 1941. Preliminary returns indicated that no-licence prevailed in the elections in the proportion of 5 to 4. Following the passage of the Selective Training and Service act on Sept. 1 6, 1940, the league urged the enactment of protective measures against vice and liquor in the vicinity of military and naval establishments. Congress enacted the May bill on July n, 1941, authorizing the establishment of zones against com- mercialized vice in such areas. Owing to the opposition of the secretaries of war and the navy, a section which had been adopted by the senate authorizing the establishment of zones against the sale of alcoholic beverages was stricken out on reconsider- ation. The national headquarters are at 131 B. st. S.E., Wash- ington, D.C. (E. B. Du.) Anti Qomiticm ^ s * n ^ e year x ^ ^ e v '' ent ant i-Sem- nllU'Oulmllolll. itism which forms one of the fundamental points of the program and activities of national socialist j3er- ANTI-TANK GUNS APPLES 57 many not only continued unabated during 1941, but as a result of further national socialist conquests it spread to such an ex- tent that it became a problem of an intensity and of dimensions unknown in history before, even in the so-called dark ages, While the possibilities for emigration diminished rapidly, until at the end of the period under discussion they totally disappeared, the national socialist regime not only intensified its anti- Semitic legislation to an unheard-of degree, but carried its treatment of the Jews with even greater violence into the newly conquered territories in the soviet union, territories which belong to the most densely populated, as far as Jews are concerned. Though the Jews had been deprived of all possibilities of economic earning in Germany, they were ordered on Jan. 20, 1941, to pay 15% additional gross income tax, "to compensate for their social inferiority." Jews remained barred from any professional or social contact with non-Jews and excluded from any visit to cul- tural or recreational places or institutions. They received no ration cards for clothing, shoes or coal, and much smaller rations for food than non-Jewish citizens. On Sept. 6, all Jews over six years of age were ordered to wear the Star of David in yellow on their coats or dresses with the inscription "Jew" in black and were forbidden to leave the areas in which they resided with- out special police permission. In the fall a systematic enforced transportation of all Jews living within the greater German reich began to eastern Poland. They were allowed to take with them only a minimum of clothing and money. All their property, per- sonal belongings, clothing, furniture, money and funds were con- fiscated. The propaganda minister, Dr. Goebbels, promulgated a ten-point charter, inciting to an undying hatred of the Jews as the mortal enemies: "Anyone who still cultivates private rela- tions with the Jew, belongs to him and must be appraised and treated the same as the Jew." Simultaneously similar curbs were applied to the Jews in the German-occupied countries of Nether- lands and Belgium. The fascist government in Italy promulgated during the summer a Jewish "final law" aiming at the elimination of the Jews from any contact with life in Italy. The fascist government in Vichy France imitated the national socialist legislation which had first been applied to the German occupied zone only. Sweeping racial curbs excluded Jews from practically all fields, not only of cultural, but also of economic activity. Xavier Vallat, a former extreme rightist member of the old parliament and a violent anti-Semite, was appointed on March 29 commissioner-general for Jewish questions. Under him the famous Nurnberg laws of the third reich were not only applied in all their rigour in German-occupied France, but introduced in rapid succession in the nonoccupied zone. The original Jewish statute, proclaimed by Vichy on Oct. 3, 1940, was amplified by a new law on June 14, 1941, and its strict measures were extended to all the French colonies under Vichy control, especially Algeria and Morocco. Only those parts of the French empire under con- trol of the Free French remained free from anti-Semitism. In view of the adherence of Japan to the "new order" it is not astonishing that for the first time an anti-Jewish association was organized in Japan on Sept. 7, under the leadership of Gen. Senjuro Hayashi with the motto "Jews are the enemies of the world." The war was regarded as a conflict between Jews and anti- Jews. Similarly in all other countries, especially in the United States and in Latin America, anti-Semitism became a characteris- tic of movements which supported directly or indirectly the "new order," and even of many persons and movements who wished to keep their own countries "neutral" in what national socialist Ger- mans proclaim as a war of fascism against the Jews. National socialist anti-Semitism does not aim only at the extinction of the Jews; it serves, above all, as a most important weapon in the ef- fort to undermine democracy and the will to resistance in the democratic countries. (See also FASCISM; JEWISH RELIGIOUS LIFE; JEWS, DISTRIBUTION OF; REFUGEES.) BIBLIOGRAPHY. Leo W. Schwarz, Where Hope Lies (1940); Israel Gold- stein, Toward a Solution (1941); the Atlantic Monthly (July-Nov., 1941); Isaque Graeber and Steuart H. Britt, Jews in a Gentile World (1941); Koppel S. Pinson, Essays on Anti-Semitism (1942). (H. Ko.) Anti-Tank Guns: see MUNITIONS OF WAR. Antonescu, Ion (1882- ), Rumanian soldier and states- man, was born in Transylvania June 2 and fought with the Rumanian armies during World War I, after which he was promoted to the rank of colonel. He later became military attache of Rumania in London and Rome, chief of the army's general staff and war minister. He was named prime minister by King Carol (q.v.) Sept. 5, 1940, in the midst of the disorders that followed, the partition of Rumania. Antonescu's first act was to demand the abdication of Carol. The prime minister then as- sumed dictatorial powers and on Sept. 14, 1940, formally promul- gated a totalitarian rule. He proceeded to restore temporary quiet in his country and established working relationships with the axis by signing the German-dictated pact of Nov. 23, 1940. After subduing the Iron Guardist anti-Semitic riots of late Jan. 1941, Antonescu tightened his grip on the government, with German backing, and decreed the death penalty for acts of terror- ism and disorder. In a controlled plebiscite of early March, Rumanians approved his regime by a vote of 2490,944 to 2,816. Iron Guardists continued to be his principal opponents, and in April he announced a plot by the organization to assassinate him during Easter services in Bucharest. Antonescu began to mobilize his army early in June and marched against the U.S.S.R. on the same day (June 22) that Hitler's troops crossed the Russian border. Before assuming the title of generalissimo and commander of the Rumanian armies in Bessarabia, he was reported to have relinquished the premiership to his nephew, Mihai Antonescu. Rumanian casualties in 1941 were heavy, especially around Odessa, and in recognition of the country's sacrifices in the "anti-Bol- shevik" crusade, Hitler personally conferred the iron cross on Antonescu Aug. 6, 1941. (See also RUMANIA.) commerc * a l cr P f apples in the United States in 1941 was estimated by the department of agricul- ture as 126,076,000 bu., compared with 114,391,000 bu. in 1940 and a six-year (1934-39) average of 125,310,000 bu. The com- mercial crop includes apples for processing and those sold for fresh consumption. The war affected seriously the export of U.S. fruit in 1941. In the year ending June 30, 1941 only 868,000 bu. were exported, compared with 3,216,000 bu. in 1940 and an an- nual average of 12,870,000 bu. in the six years, 1931-36. The 1941 apple crop in Canada was by preliminary estimate, 3,436,- 400 bbl, or about 20% below the 1940 crop. Table I. U.S. App/e Production in Leading Slate, 194? and 1940 State 1041 bu. Xy 4 bu. State 1041 bu. 1940 bu. Washington New York Virginia . Pennsylvania 28,350,000 16,120,000 11,505,000 9,313,000 27,469,000* 12,936,000 10,660,000 9,100,000 Indiana . . . Massachusetts Maryland . . Idaho. . . . 2,230,000 2,174,000 2,070,000 1,998,000 1,225,000 2,174,000 2,077,000 2,160,000* California Michigan Ohio . . West Virginia Illinois , . New Jersey Oregon . . 7,092,000 7,520,000 7,064,000 5,024,000 3,509,000 3,150,000 2,673,000 6,498,000 5,967,000 5,074,000 4,868,000 1,876,000 3,296,000 3,263,000 Delaware . Missouri. . North Carolina Connecticut Colorado . Arkansas . New Hampshire 1,794,000 1,708,000 1,365,000 1,267,000 1,265,000 1,025,000 817,000 1,900,000 1,616,000 062,000 1,210,000 1,564,000* 765,000 925,000 *Includes the following Quantities harvested but not utilized owing to excessive callage: Idaho, 216,000 bu.; Washington, 1,280,000 bu.; Colorado, 50,900 bu. A greatly reduced production in Iowa, Nebraska, Kansas and northwest Missouri was due to an Armistice day, 1940, freeze APPLIED CHEMISTRY ARABIA which killed or damaged many trees. Tablo II. Canadian App/t Production by Provinces, 194? and 1940 104' barrels ig-ji barrels 1040 barrel^ British Columbia Nova Scotia Ontario . . . 1,415.100 1,148,000 55.U>oo l,uS i.ooo | 1, IS I.OOO 78.1,000 Quebec . t New Brunswick 252,700 67,000 3^i,.soo 53,^00 (S.O.R.j Applied Chemistry: see CHEMISTRY. Applied Psychology: see PSYCHOLOGY. Appropriations and Expenditures: sec BUDGETS, NA- TIONAL. The New York aquarium closed its doors for the last time on Oct. i. It was originally estab- lished in 1896 by the city of New York and had been operated by the New York Zoological society since 1902. This closure was considered necessary by the city, incident to construction work in Battery park. The recorded public attendance reached more than 84,000,000 persons from 1902 to 1941, inclusive. The bulk of the collections was distributed among the public aquariums in Washington, D.C., Philadelphia, Pa. and Boston, Mass.; the re- mainder were being held for public exhibition in a small display under construction in the New York Zoological park, to be opened in the early part of 1942. Research activities formerly centred at the aquarium were continued, in part at the New York Zoologi- cal park and in part at the American Museum of Natural History. Other aquariums as far as reported or able to report were sur- viving, Collecting in all cases was greatly restricted and as the war continued they all, of necessity, became increasingly exhibits of localized collections. (C. M. BR.) r * ver Aqueduct, constructed by the Metropolitan Water District of Southern Cali- fornia at a cost of approximately $200,000,000 extends 241 mi. from Parker dam on the Colorado river to Cajalco reservoir, 12 mi. south of Riverside, Calif. This aqueduct is capable of deliver- ing 1,000,000,000 gal. daily to Los Angeles and 12 neighbouring coastal cities. With the last of the tunnels on the distribution system completed in 1941, the entire system totalling 392 mi. was in complete operation on Aug. 18, 1941. The Delaware river aque- duct, an 85-mi. pressure tunnel, being built by the board of water supply of New York, is an important feature of the $298,- GRAVITY-ARRESTER of the Delaware river aqueduct, under construction in 1941 lo add 540,000,000 gal. daily to the water tupply of New York city. The series of steps slows the rush of water as It issues from a tunnel, so that It will flow smoothly through open-country channels 000,000 Delaware project which will add 540,000,000 gal. daily to New York city's water supply, thus increasing the supply 50%. The last of the major tunnelling jobs was holed through Sept. 17, 1941, completing 83-8 mi. of the aqueduct which will carry water 300 to 1,000 ft. underground from the watersheds of the Catskill mountains to Hillview reservoir on the northern boundary of New York city. Final holing through of the entire tunnel is expected in the spring of 1942. The All-American canal, biggest irrigation ditch in the United States, was in operation its full length dur- ing 1941. It carries water diverted from the Colorado river by Imperial dam a distance of 80 mi. into Imperial valley. With its i30-mi. Coachclla branch canal, excavation for about half of which is completed, water will be supplied for 1,000,000 ac. of land in southern California. As a part of the Boulder canyon project, the All-Amcrican canal system was being built by the bureau of reclamation at an estimated cost of $38,500,000. The boring of a 13-1 -mi. tunnel, which will carry water from the western slope through the Continental Divide to irrigate agri- cultural lands in northeastern Colorado was proceeding from both ends, with approximately one-third of the entire length either completed or under contract in 1941. Two tunnels of a 40-mi. aqueduct to convey water from Deer creek reservoir in Provo can- yon over mountain slopes to Salt Lake City, Utah, were completed and work was under way on a pipe line in 1941. On the Central valley project in California the first 29 mi. of the 46-mi. Con- tra Costa canal were in use serving fresh water to industries, cities and farms; and work was in progress on the 4o-mi. Madera canal to carry water from Friant reservoir to thirsty lands in the San Joaquin valley. A pipe line aqueduct project was put in service in 1941 bringing to Toledo, 0., a supply of good water from Lake Erie to replace the old and unsatisfactory supply from the Maumce river. Construction of the Key West aqueduct, to extend from the mainland near Miami, Fla., to the tip of the Key West peninsula, a distance of 134 mi., was planned for immediate construction in Dec. 1941 to supply fresh water for the navy and the Key West civilian population. (See also CANALS AND INLAND WATERWAYS; DAMS; TUNNELS.) (J. C. PA.) Arohio Total area ( est -) 1,000,000 sq.mi. Total pop. (est., HldUld. 1937) 9,300,000; Saudi Arabia, 4,500,000; Yemen 3,500,000; Oman and Muscat 500,000; Kuwait 80,000; Trucial Sheikhs 80,000. Language: Arabic; religion: Mohammedan. Rulers: Saudi Arabia, King Abdul Aziz Ibn Sa'ud; Yemen, Imam Yahaya Muhammad Hamid ed Din; Oman and Muscat, Sultan Sayyid Said bin Taimur; Kuwait, Sheikh Ahmed Ibn Jabir al Subah. History. The year 1941 opened with the discovery of a con- spiracy in Mecca against King Ibn Sa'ud's regime. In spite of its suspected instigation by the axis, it was not a very important affair and was easily suppressed; one of the personalities in- culpated was executed and several others were imprisoned. This wah practically the only untoward event in a year during which the Arabian peninsula remained as a whole tranquil and untouched by the war, except insofar as war conditions considerably re- duced the number of pilgrims journeying to the Hejaz from over- seas for the pilgrimage. King Abdul Aziz Ibn Sa'ud continued to abide loyally by his friendship with Great Britain. Thus during Rashid Ali's revolt in Iraq in May he refused to render any help, either diplomatic or military, to the insurrectionary regime, in spite of Rashid Ali's move in sending one of his ministers, Naji Suwaydi, on a mission to Riyadh. He also interned German and Italian military refugees from East Africa. The Imam of the Yemen took up a more ambiguous attitude, and the activities of axis agents in his territories seem to have continued in 1941. ARCHAEOLOGY 59 If the policy of King Ibn Sa'ud was pro-British, still more was it pro-Arab. He continued to take a close interest in the affairs of Syria, Palestine and other Moslem and Arab countries, and to do what he could to further the interests of their populations. His concern for the welfare of his fellow-Moslems was shown in the speech which he made during the pilgrimage in January. "Not one night," he declared, "do we lie down without anxiety for the cause of all Moslems, anxiety for the cause of our brethren of Syria, Palestine, Iraq and Egypt." His strong pan-Arab and Is- lamic sentiment was shared, it is probable, by a large proportion of his subjects, no less than by the imam of the Yemen and the other rulers of the peninsula. (A. H. Ho.) TRADE. With India (1938-39): Oman and Muscat, imports 283,987; exports 153,568; other states of Arabia, imports 485,932; exports 48,172. With the United Kingdom (1938): Saudi Arabia and Yemen, imports 94,960; exports 28,871; Oman and Muscat, Trucial Sheikhs and Kuwait, imports 40,262; exports 18,354. Total trade of Oman and Muscat (1938-39): imports Rs. 48,76,193; exports Rs. 33,31,939; Kuwait (1937-38): imports 410,812; exports 174,006. (See also ISLAM.) Western Hemisphere. Archaeological field wori^ during the year 1941, diminished in the United States and increased in Mexico and especially in South America. Reallocation of Work Projects administration funds toward defense work reduced the number of state-wide archaeolog- ical projects ; on the other hand, the Institute of Andean Research launched several important archaeological expeditions in Mexico, Central and South America. In the United States archaeological efforts centred around the problems of: (i) the antiquity of man in North America; and (2) the more sedentary aboriginal cultures. 1. The association of man-made objects with extinct animal forms still constituted the earliest human horizon in America. No direct association of human skeletal remains had. up to 1941, been recovered. The Smithsonian institution excavated a new site ten miles south of San Jon, N.M., where various types of stone implements were found in association with both extinct and mod- ern bison and extinct mammoth. The University of Michigan con- tinued explorations of old beach lines formed some 10,000-15,000 years ago by the waters of Lake Huron, along the northern shore of that lake near Killarney, Manitoulin Island, Ont., Canada. Archaeologists from the University of Pennsylvania museum ex- cavated Yuma sites in southwestern Wyoming near the town of Eden. 2. Sedentary aboriginal cultures: In Alaska the American Museum of Natural History continued explorations at an important site known as Ipiutak on a barren gravel spit of Point Hope, I3o'mi. above the Arctic circle. More than 500 tombs were excavated in an area of six miles leading from the ancient town. The Ipiutak culture is distinguished by its ivory art, finely chipped flat tools, and emphasis on land hunting gear. Laboratory analysis of the artifacts and human skeletal material may furnish valuable information concerning the migrations from Asia to North America. The Eastern Washington State Historical society, the University of Washington and Washington State college combined efforts in continuing an archaeological survey near Hellgate, which revealed two distinct levels of occupation. Other sites were excavated between Kettle .Falls and the Canadian boundary. The Los An- geles museum continued a survey and excavation of caves and shell middens among the Channel Islands off the coast of Califor- nia. One cave at the southern end of San Clemente Island pro- duced drilled and tarred planks from a plank canoe, fish harpoons, woven cloth, fishhooks, sea otter robes, etc. material similar to that obtained from the natives by Capt. Vancouver in 1793. The University of California collected archaeological specimens from vated in the coast region north of Golden Gate. The desert labora- tory of the Southwest ' museum worked two large sites near Twenty-nine Palms, Calif. The University of New Mexico explored small house ruins in Chaco canyon. The Field Museum of Natural History continued excavations of an important site near Reserve, N.M. In a large rock shelter on the Papago Indian reservation, near Tucson, Ariz., significant additions were made to the prehistoric chronology by the University of Arizona. Within the 15 ft. of trash deposit a record was obtained, extending from modern times back through pre-pottery and pre-agricultural levels. The Amerind foundation continued work at Tres Alamos on the San Pedro river in south- eastern Arizona. The Carnegie Institution of Washington spon- sored excavation of a Basket Maker II site along the Animas valley near Durango, Colo. The Colorado Museum of Natural History continued archaeological explorations in western Colorado. The University of Utah carried out extensive surveys and some excavations in central and northern Utah. The North Dakota Historical society proceeded with an archae- ological survey and exploration of Mandan and Arikara sites along the Missouri river in central North Dakota. The museum of the University of South Dakota excavated more than 200 protohistoric Arikara house sites, refuse middens and a smaller fortified village along the Missouri river in Hughes county, S.D. Excavations by the Nebraska State Historical society indicated that maize was cultivated by some of the earlier cultural horizons. Excavations were directed in Oklahoma by the state university. The University of Minnesota excavated sites at Lake Shetek in southwestern Minnesota, and other villages at Tuttle and Fox lakes near the Iowa line in central Minnesota. The University of Missouri carried on excavations of Siouan sites in Missouri. The Academy of Science of St. Louis made archaeological investi- gations in Jefferson and New Madrid counties in eastern Missouri. In Illinois the state museum and state parks division excavated a mound within the famous Cahokia mound group near East St. Louis; and the University of Chicago continued large-scale explor- ations at the Kincaid site in the southern part of the state. The Indiana Historical society carried on excavations throughout 1941 at the Angel site in southwestern Indiana. The Ohio State museum directed the excavation of a small Adena mound north of Chillicothe, 0. Under the sponsorship of the University of Kentucky, archaeo- logical excavations were begun in the area to be flooded after the building of the Kentucky dam by the Tennessee Valley authority in the southwestern part of the state; other important excavations were completed in central and western Kentucky. The University of Tennessee directed the excavation of other basin sites to be flooded by the building of Tennessee Valley authority dams, work being concentrated in the Watts Bar dam and on the Tennessee side of the Kentucky dam reservoir areas. The national park service sponsored excavations of small sites within the Oc- mulgee national monument at Macon, Ga. Most of the agencies in the Mississippi river valley were assisted by labour furnished through the Work Projects administration. Historical archaeological excavations at Jamestown island, Va., by the national park service, continued to reveal numerous ob- jects associated with the early i;th century settlement on the island. Similar excavations near Plymouth, Mass., were inaugu- rated under private sponsorship in connection with the remnants of houses erected by the Pilgrims. The Massachusetts Archaeo- logical society tested early Indian occupation sites in various sec- tions of eastern Massachusetts. The Long Island chapter of the New York Archaeological association explored a section of an important site on the north branch of Long Island. Vassar's Hud- ARCHAEOLOGY zons along the Hudson river in New York. The Pennsylvania His- torical commission recovered evidence of Hopewell-like cultural material near Warren in northeastern Pennsylvania. The Smithsonian institution and the National Geographic soci- ety jointly sponsored archaeological excavations at a large prehis- toric site at Cerro de las Mesas in the southern part of Veracruz, Mex. Two sculptured calendar stones with dates in the first and fourth katuns of the Maya calendar were uncovered. More than eight tons of cultural material were obtained through stratigraphic excavations. A remarkable cache of 782 specimens of precious jade some the finest examples of sculptured jade from the west- ern hemisphere was discovered in one of the large mounds. The Smithsonian institution also sponsored an archaeological expedi- tion in the state of Coahuila in northern Mexico, where intensive excavations in two caves and one rock shelter produced well pre- served cultural material consisting of feathers, baskets, sandals, throwing sticks, fur robes, grooved clubs and desiccated bodies. The Direccion de Monumentos Prehispanicos of the Mexican gov- ernment directed explorations in Yucatan, Palenque, Monte Alban, Cholula, Michoacan and Hidalgo; other organizations sponsored work near Acapetlahuaya and in the state of Jalisco. The Peabody museum of Harvard university directed research upon Chiriqui ceramic types in Panama. Middle American Re- search institute of Tulane university sponsored an archaeological survey in Honduras and Costa Rica. Carnegie Institution of Washington included in their archaeological program explorations in Guatemala, Honduras, Salvador and Nicaragua, where a large section of buried volcanic strata containing human footprints was uncovered in such a manner as to preserve these imprints of man in situ. Under the direction of the Institute of Andean Research archae- ological expeditions were inaugurated in the following states of South America : Venezuela, Colombia, northern Peru and Ecuador, southern Peru and the north Chile coast, southern Peru and the Bolivian highlands. These excavations were made possible through a grant from the Co-ordinator's Committee on Commercial and Cultural Relations Between the American Republics and the wholehearted co-operation of archaeologists in those states of South America. The Peruvian government continued archaeolog- ical explorations near Lima, especially at Pachacamac, Tambo Colorado in Pisco, and a site in the Nazca valley. Other states in South America continued their archaeological explorations, BIBLIOGRAPHY. Many technical archaeological reports were published during 1941 (vol. 43, American Anthropologist, and vol. 7, American Antiquity). The most outstanding publication for 1941 was Aztecs oj Mexico, by George C. Vaillant, which describes, on the basis of archaeologi- cal evidence and historical documents, the origin, rise and fall of the Aztec nation (1941). (F. M. SF.) SECTION of "the city above the clouds,' 1 one of the two lott Inca cities dis- covered near Cuzco, Peru by the Wenner-Qren expedition in 1941. The granite houiet. walti and italrwavi are remarkably well preserved Eastern Hemisphere. In a very real sense the following sum- mary of old world archaeological activity during 1941 is a tribute to those scientists who, in spite of the war, managed to make significant contributions to knowledge. The list is by no means exhaustive, since communication with several countries was virtu- ally impossible. In addition to many new discoveries, eight im- portant books were published, notwithstanding the fact that sev- eral of the authors were actively engaged in war work. Indeed the war provided many archaeologists with an opportunity for as- similating the tremendous bulk of new material that was brought to light since 1930. At the conclusion of this article a bibli- ography is given for those desiring further information; other references are cited in the text. The Palaeolithic Period. Further details were published by Time concerning the Altamira-like cave paintings from the Grotte de Lascaux, near Montignac in the Dordogne region of south-cen- tral France, the discovery of which was announced in 1940. Six of the scenes, including one 39 ft. long showing a herd of woolly horses, two goats and a wild row, are reproduced in the Time arti- cle, which should be consulted by all students of primitive art. Dr. F. W. Wulsin's book, The Prehistoric Cultures of North- West Africa, published by the Peabody museum of Harvard uni- versity, is the first complete account of the archaeological material from Tunisia, Algeria and Morocco that has ever been compiled. An enormous body of facts, especially those dealing with the Old Stone Age, was collated and synthesized by the author. This book, intended primarily for reference purposes, demonstrates the im- portant role played by northwest Africa from early times down to the historic period in the diffusion of culture into Europe. It like- wise points the direction which future research should take in this region by emphasizing the existing problems. The Mugharet el 'Alyia (High cave), an important cave in Tan- gier, northwest Africa, which contained both atypical Upper Palaeolithic and Neolithic levels, as well as a mandible fragment and a molar tooth of Neanderthaloid affinities, was in 1941 com- pletely excavated. In 1939 Prof. Carleton C. Coon of Harvard university dug a large trench through the deposits, but the war prevented him from returning to finish the work. However, in spite of very difficult circumstances, this was successfully achieved by Dr. Ralph Nahon and Hooker Doolittle, both former residents of Tangier. The material was placed in 1941 in the Peabody museum, Cambridge, Mass., where the complete excavation report was being prepared for publication by Bruce Howe. At Sidi Abdcrrahman, near Casablanca (Morocco) on the At- lantic littoral of northwest Africa, Prof. Breuil announced that MM. Neuville arid Ruhlmann had discovered an important Lower Palaeolithic archaeological horizon. The latter yields large flakes manufactured by the so-called Clacton technique in association with hand axes of Abbevillian type. Since the site is situated on an ancient dune 90 mi. above present sea level, and since the implements are in situ in it, Sidi Abderrahman furnishes definite evidence that western Morocco was occupied by man during early post-Sicilian times. In 1941 Prof. C. van Riet Lowe, director of the bureau of archaeology of the Union of South Africa, and E. J. Wayland director of the geological survey of Uganda, jointly prepared an extensive report covering the Pleistocene geology and Palaeolithic archaeology of Uganda. It is understood that the conclusion? of these authorities differ in several fundamental respects from those arrived at by T. P. O'Brien, whose book on The Prehis- tory of Uganda Protectorate appeared in 1939. The report, al- ready submitted to the Uganda government, was planned to be published after the war. To provide a basis for dating archaeological material in South Africa (not only finds directly associated with recognized geo- ARCHAEOLOGY 61 logical horizons, but also those obtained by .excavation in cave sites) H. B. S. Cook summarized the known facts pertaining to the Late Cenozoic deposits of the region. His report, A Preliminary Survey of the Quaternary Period in Southern Africa, published by the bureau of archaeology of the Union of South Africa, includes a discussion of raised beaches, river terraces, non-fluviatile de- posits, Pleistocene mammals and caves. The author's tentative conclusions regarding the correlation of the main events are out- lined in tabular form. A large and carefully documented series of palaeolithic imple- ments, comprising Acheulean, Levallois and Upper Palaeolithic types, was collected by Peter D. Cornwall, working for the Uni- versity of California and Harvard university, on the mainland of Arabia adjacent to the island of Bahrein. The assemblage also includes mesolithic, neolithic and Bronze Age material, in addition to the contents of graves contained in tumuli roughly dated 600- 300 B.C. The importance of Cornwall's work in the hitherto little known archaeological region cannot be overestimated. Preliminary excavations at the cave of Amir-Temir in the moun- tains of Uzbekistan established the presence of three palaeolithic horizons in central Asia. The oldest of these, very similar to the upper level of Teshik-Tash, was referred to the Mousterian. The work at this place, the second palaeolithic site to be reported from this important region, was being, directed by Dr. A. P. Okladni- kov of Tashkent. All students of early man welcomed the publication of Dr. H. de Terra's views on the Pleistocene of China (Pub. No. 6 of the Inst. Gco-Biol., Peking). The most important single contribution of the work is that it focuses attention on the evidence of former glaciations in China. In the far east, as elsewhere in the old world, the Pleistocene climate underwent a series of major fluc- tuations, making it possible to date early human fossils as well as Stone Age implements more precisely than heretofore. Accord- ing to de Terra, the Sinanthropus deposits at the famous site of Chou Kou Tien may now be correlated with the 2nd Interglacial period in northwest India. Fossil Man. A, D. Lacaille of the Welcome Historical Medical museum, London, reported that he has been working on a large collection of Lower Aurignacian (Chatelperronian) flint and bone implements from the important site of Chatelperron. Associated with this material, excavated some years ago, a hitherto unpub- lished Upper Palaeolithic skull was "discovered," which was being studied by Prof. Morant. Of interest are the facts that the vault is extraordinarily thick and that it is very like the Combe-Capellc specimen in many respects. In a communication to the writer, Prof. C. van Riet Lowe stated that his assistant, Dr. B. D. Malan, excavated a cave with great success in the Union of South Africa. The site yielded "a Neanderthaloid skull with quantities of implements made on flakes struck from advanced Levallois (Middle Stone Age in South Afri- ca) cores plus a good fauna.' 1 This discovery is important for two reasons : (a) the human fossil is the first Neanderthaloid to be found in a definitely dated horizon in southern Africa (the age of Rhodesian man is uncertain), and (b) it is the only skull that has ever been found in this iegiun in an undisputed Middle Stone Age context. The Carnegie Institution of Washington announced that Dr. G. H. R. von Koenigswald had discovered a very heavy human mandible belonging to an absolutely new type of fossil man in the upper part of the Lower Pleistocene beds (Djetis hori- zon) of Java. In several respects this new specimen, the second Lower Pleistocene human fossil to be found in Asia, differs from Pithecanthropus erectus the Java ape-man. Presumably it would be accorded a new generic status. Neolithic and Later: The Near East. Florence E. Day estab- lished that the Islamic Omayyad (A.D. 661-750) ceramics found at Tarsus in Cilicia were actually manufactured at the site. This green glazed pottery has affinities with T'ang dynasty (A.D. 617- 906) wares of China evidence that further confirms the intimate contact between the near and far east which existed at this period. For on the basis of A.D. 8th century Chinese records, it has been revealed that there were Chinese artisans at Kufa in Iraq during T'ang times. On the northern outskirts of modern Hama, situated in Syria on the Orontes river halfway between Damascus and Aleppo, exca- vations were made on a large mound by the Carlsbcrg foundation of Copenhagen from 1930-38. The work, details of which were available in 1941 for the first time, was directed by Dr. H. Ingholt. Twelve different levels of civilization (the last city was destroyed by Sargon in 720 B.C.) were revealed. The oldest level, which goes back to the 5th millennium B.C., overlies virgin soil, and it is characterized by burnished or fluted brown and black pottery. Stratum n contains characteristic Tel Halaf painted ware, to- gether with stone artifacts, a terra cotta seal and an animal figurine of clay. Above these neolithic strata are ten more levels which throw light on the development of Bronze and Iron Age culture at ancient Hama. In Palestine joint excavations by the American School of Orien- tal Research and the Hebrew university, near the school's property in Jerusalem, uncovered the remains of the old city wall. A stretch 23 mi. long, including a large tower, was exposed. This segment is on a line with previously discovered remains which to- gether cover a total length of some 600 mi. This so-called "third wall," referred to by Josephus, was built by Herod Agrippa and the Jews between A.D. 40 and 70. The pottery found overlying the portion discovered in 1941 demonstrates that by the Byzan- tine period this old wall had been completely stripped of its super- structure blocks for building purposes. Europe (General). From the point of view of European archae- ology it is difficult to overemphasize the importance of C. F. C. Hawkes's book, Prehistoric Foundations of Europe to the Myccncan Age. The author's conclusions differ in several respicls from those of Prof. V. G. Childe, whose second edition of The Dawn of European Civilization was hitherto the only up-to-date general book of a similar nature that had appeared in the English language. Both Hawkes and Childe stress the importance of the principles of diffusion and geographical factors with regard to the interpretation of the development of culture. Both attempt to synthesize the sum total of the evidence social, cultural and economic rather than certain classificatory abstractions. Although the scope of Hawkes's book is broader than that covered by Childe, there are available for students o( fhc prehistoric aspects of occidental civilization two authori- tative and unbiased accounts of the cultures that flourished in Europe up to the middle of the 2nd millennium B.C. THE "THRONE OF SOLOMON," a fortrest In northwestern Iran, as seen from the air by members of the 1935-37 expedition of the Oriental Institute of Chi- cage. This photograph appeared in Flights over Ancient Cities of Iran, pub- lished in 1941 DETAILS OF THE ANCIENT PALACF, TERRACE of the Persian kings at Persepolis stand out In bold relief in this aerial photograph taken by the Oriental Institute of Chicago during its expedition of 1935-37 and published in 1941 in Flights over Ancient Cities of Iran Cyprus. On the basis of new data obtained by careful excavation at the stratified site of Kourion, it was possible to study the history of the script used in Cyprus during the Classical period. According to Dr. J. F. Daniel, this was the last direct descendant of the Minoan linear scripts. At Kourion it first appears in the Late Cycladic I-A level and remains in use through L.C. III-A timesfrom about 1500-1150 B.C. Since the characters are derived directly from the Minoan linear script A and are devoid of Helladic influence, the new evidence demonstrated that the Late Bronze Age syllabary of Cyprus cannot have been introduced by Achaean colonists. Greece, Prof. W. B. Dinsmoor's detailed analysis of the dates when architectural and sculptural repairs were made on the temple of Zeus at Olympia resulted in his recognition of the fact that these repairs were ren- dered necessary by an earthquake which occurred during the first half of the 2nd century B.C. Thus it was shown that the much disputed substitute statues (Enutzfigurcn), discovered more than 60 years ago among the pedi- mental sculptures of the temple, may be dated between 169 and 165 B.C. Italy. In early 1941 mention was made of a steatopygous statuette, found near Reggio Emilia and originally attributed to the Upper Palaeolithic period. Subsequent excavations at this site, however, revealed that the locality where the statuette was discovered -Chiozza di Scandiano is an extensive neolithic cemetery containing numerous graves. These yielded implements of flint and polished stone, as well as typical neolithic pottery. Since the figurine was undoubtedly associated with one of these burials, views regarding its antiquity based on typological analogies have had to be somewhat modified. An exhaustive study of the published reports dealing with excavations at Terra Mare settlements in northern Italy, as well as a complete analysis of all the important collections from those sites, convinced Gosta Saflund (Skrifter Utgivna av Svcnska Institutct i Rom. vol. vii) that the plan of the typical Terrarnara, as reconstructed by Pigorini (on the basis of his i9th century work at Castcllazzo), is only a figment of the excavator's imagina- tion. For in reality a Terramara is a squalid Bronze Age village containing round or rectangular huts, which may or may not be raised on piles. As Dr. G. M. A. Hanfmnnn pointed out in his review of Saflund's book (see Anter. lour. Arch., xlv: 308-314 (1941]), those sites cannot conceivably be regarded as the forerunners of Roman camps. Nor does the evidence uphold Pigorini's theory that the Terra Mare were the originators of metal working in northern Italy. From a chronological point of view the Terra Mare arrived in Italy about the middle of the 2nd millennium B.C. (1600 B.C. at the very earliest) and began their decline during the Iron Age in- vasions (c. 900 B.C.), according to Hanfmann. On the basis of cultural analogies, this group is to be regarded as representing a prehistoric infiltra- tion of people from central Europe during Bronze Age times. As a result of building and constructional work, including the cxca\ -ttion of a deep-level underground railway, many new details pertaining to ancient Rome came to light. Among these were the remains of the temple of Bel- lona, dedicated a few years after it was vowed by Appius Claudius in 296 B.C. The year 1941 witnessed the culmination of the huge official project for uncovering the major portion of Ostia, the port of ancient Rome, on which Guide Calza and his staff were engaged for some years. During the final season a large courtyard, without arcades and surrounded by more than 20 rooms, was uncovered at that site. Several fine examples of statuary be- longing to the A.D. 2nd and 3rd centuries were found. Portugal. European archaeologists were eagerly awaiting further in- formation concerning Prof. H. Breuil's survey of prehistoric sites and an- cient monuments conducted on behalf of the Portuguese government. It 62 was understood that Breuil's report would be published in Lisbon. England. Although the war put a temporary stop to archaeological research in England, it had by no means halted intellectual activity. Indeed it offered an opportunity for synthesizing the tremendous collec- tion of facts that had been accumu- lating since 1932. Two of the fore- most British archaeologists Prof. V. G. Childe and Dr. Grahame Clark produced books of a fundamen- tally different nature. Childe's Pre- historic Communities of the, British /slcs was intended for students of European archaeology, whereas Pre- historic Britain by Dr. Clark was written primarily for the general public. Each authority stressed the importance of the social life of pre- historic man as the key to interpret- ing problems involving cultural de- velopment, economic activity and chronology a far cry from the now obsolete approach based entirely on typological considerations. Scotland. Prof. V. Gordon Childe of Edinburgh university announced that he had successfully dug out a Viking house at Freswick, which was brought to light during the course of commercial excavations. The site be- longs to the A.D. 1 3th century or later. Prof. Childe's survey of the rela- tion of chambered cairns to recent settlement on Rousay disclosed the interesting fact that each group of cairns corresponds closely to a recent township (croft) in the islands. This suggests that an economy very similar to that of the 2oth century charac- terized Late Bronze Age life on Rousay. The cairns themselves do not appear to be the burial places of rich chieftains, but rather genuinely com- munal. Ireland. 'In Eire pollen analysis as a means of accurately dating archaeo- logical finds from bogs and other unaerated deposits was making rapid strides. Drs. Mitchell, O'Leary and Raftery demonstrated that a Bronze Age halberd and a typically Irish looped spearhead in reality may be as- signed, on the basis of the palaeobotanical evidence, to periods that do not correspond to those suggested by the typology of the objects themselves. Professor Sean P. O'Riordain of University college, Cork, continued his excavations at Lough Gur in County Limerick during 1941. In a small house site enclosed partly by low upright stones, and partly by natural rock, fragments of pottery in association with stone implements were found. This evidence, strongly suggesting a neolithic occupation in the Lough Gur region, is in accord with the implications of Professor O'Riordain's previous discovery of quantities of Windmill Hill (neolithic) pottery at the site. Northern Europe- -Carl-Axel Mobcrg's Zonenglicdcrungen dcr vorchrist- lichen Eisc.nzeit in Nordcuropa (Lund, 1941) is a comprehensive treatise on the fifth and sixth periods of the Northern Bronze Age, the three periods of the Pre-Christian Iron Age, and the earlier part of the so-called Roman Iron Age in northern Europe. This work was welcomed by a wide circle of old world archaeologists. It is an excellent reference book in which the author attempted to define the relationships of the several cultures involved on the basis of geographical and climatic factors. Swcdcn.--\n important series of pagan monuments found on the island of Gotland and dating from the 5th to the nth centuries was described by Dr. Sune Lindqvist in his book, Gotland* Bildsteinc. These monu- ments are sculptured with figures of horsemen, warriors, ships, etc. The book adds a great deal to existing knowledge of the culture of Gotland dur- ing dnrk age times when this island was an important trading centre con- necting ihe east, via the Russian rivers, with the Baltic and Atlantic sea routes. U.S.S.R. (Uzbekistan). From the A.D. 9th to the isth centures U/be- kistan (Russian Turkestan) was the centre of an extensive state. In fact during the Samanid period its control extended to northern Afghanistan. Khurasan and otlrr parts of Persia. In the two most important cities Samarkand and Bukhara there were many important architectural monu- ments, which were falling into a bad state of repair. It was gratifying to learn, therefore, that the soviet government established a Committee for the Preservation and Study of Monuments of Material Culture. In 1941, 80 of the most important Samanid buildings were being restored. With regard to prehistoric times the potentialities of Uzbekistan cannot he overemphasized. Huge tells, such as Afrasiyab the site of ancient Samarkand were identified. By the close of 1941 there had been very few controlled excavations on this or any of the other ruined cities in the region. A series of burial mounds between the Chirchik and Boz-Su rivers, near Kaunchi-Tepe, wa.s bc.-ing excavated by the newly formed Uzbekistan ' Com- mittee for the Preservation and Study of Monuments and Material Culture. These barrows contained thousands of burials representing three periods:' (a) typical Late Bronze Age tumuli similar to those of central Europe and the Ukraine, (b) a group of Iron Age burials of about 500 B.C., and (c) catacomb graves containing elaborate funerary furniture and attributed to A.D. 3rd and 4th centuries. Iran. Erich Schmidt's book, Flights over Ancient Cities of Iran (Sp. Pub. Oriental Inst. Uni. Chicago), is not only an outstanding contribution to Iranian archaeology, but also a brilliant demonstration of the infinite possibilities which aerial photography offers the archaeologist; for (a) ex- plorations and general survey work can be accomplished quickly and cffi- ARCHERY ARCHITECTURE 63 cienfjy, (b) it is possible to document prehistoric sites in their topographical environment, and (c) the vertical air view provides the excavator with a base-map a 'complete record of surface clues often invisible from the ground. Indeed, the air-map is actually superior in many respects to the ground survey, which requires several months to complete and considerable expenditures. The publication of Flights over Ancient Cities oj Iran may be considered the archaeological "event of the year" as far as the old world is concerned. In addition to being the most elaborate and comprehensive work that has ever appeared in the field of aerial archaeology, this book points the direction along which research will be conducted in the future. Information was in 1941 available regarding the 1937 excavations by the American Institute of Iranian Art and Archaeology at Kuh-i-Dasht in southern Luristan. In a circular stone sanctuary a considerable number of small bronzes, revealing a superlative skill, were brought to light. These votive figures chiefly represent goats, frogs and a miniature unicorn all in the round as well as an interesting series of repoussS disks. Several of the latter, known from other sites in Iran and the Caucasus, display As- syrian affinities. It was established that they were used as cult standards rather than as hairpins, For the most part the Kuh-i-Dasht bronzes may be dated to the end of the 2nd millennium B.C. (c. 1200 B.C.). China. Sites containing Late Neolithic black pottery, hitherto kjiown only from Shantung, Honan and Anhwei in eastern China, were reported by Sterling S. Beath from the vicinity of Hangchow in Chekiang province, south of the Yangtze valley. This ware is for the most part wheel-made and burnished on the wheel when nearly dry. Its eggshell thinness indicates a highly developed ceramic technique: Philippines. Rev. J. F. Ewtog, SJ,, was in the Philippines in 1941, where he secured a large anthropometric series from the island of Mindanao. He also announced that he had discovered rich mesolithic as well as neo- lithic sites in this area, Although Father Ewing did no actual digging, nor was he likely to during the war, it was very significant that stone imple- ments and pottery, of the same types as those found by Dr. Beyer in the vicinity of Manila, also occur on Mindanao. BIBLIOGRAPHY. Palaeolithic period: Dordogne cave, Time, xxxviii, No. 4, pp. 48-50 (July 28, 1941); Northwest Africa, Papers of the Peabody museum, xix: 1-173 (1941); South Africa, Bur. of Arch, of the Union of South Africa, Dept. of the Interior,- Pretoria, Arch. Ser., No. iv (1941); Uzbekistan cave, Inst. Material Culture, U.S.S.R., Short Communications. vi: 67-69; Early Man in China, Inst. Geo-Biol., Pekin, Pub. No. 6, pp. 1-54 (1941). Neolithic and Later: The Near East: Tarsus, Asia, xli, No. 3, pp. 143-146 (1941); Hama, Asia, xli, No. 4, pp. 199-202 (1941); Jerusalem Bull. Amer. Schools Oriental Res., No. 81, pp. 6-10 (1941); ibid., No. 83. pp. 4-7 (1941); Cyprus, Amer. Jour, Arch., xlv, No. 2, pp. 249-282 (1941); Greece, ibid., xlv, No. 3, pp. 399-427 (1941); Italy, ibid., xlv. No. 3, pp. 451-475 (1941); Ireland, Proc., Roy. Irish Acad., xlvi, sec. C. pp. 287-298 (1941); Irish Travel, pp. 141-142 (April 1941); Sweden (Island of Gotland), Kungl. Vitterhets historic och antikvitets akademien (Stockholm, 1941); U.S.S.R. (Uzbekistan), Asia, xli, No. 2, pp. 102-106 (1941); ibid., xli, No. 5, pp. 243-244 (1941); ibid., xli, No. 12, pp. 725- 727 (1941); Iran, III. London News, March i, May 31 and Sept. 6 (1941); China, Asia, xli, No. i, pp. 47-50 (1941). (H. L. Ms.) Architecture. annua ^ tournament of the National Arch- ery association, which was held at Portland, Ore., Aug. 5-9, 1941, was noteworthy because in every target event the record was either broken or tied. Larry Hughes of Burbank, Calif., won the men's championship and set up records of 141- 827 in the Single York and 90-744 in the Single American. Miss Ree Dillinger of Bloomfield, N.J., won the ladies' championship by the narrow margin of one point over Miss Mildred Miller of Milwaukee, Wis., the final standing being Miss Dillinger 2,098, Miss Miller 2,097. Miss Dillinger made a new record of 72-584 in the Single Columbia and Miss Miller made a new record of 72-522 in the Single National. Dorothy Axtelle of Tacoma, Wash., won the girls' championship and established a new record of 144-1,022 in the Double Columbia. Billy West of Joplin, Mo., won the boys' championship and hung up a new record of 180- 1,426 in the Double Junior American. The 1 2th Annual Intercollegiate contest sponsored by the National Arch- ery association was held in May with 148 teams (S archers to a team) representing 95 colleges competing. In the women's division, first place was taken by Team I from the University of Connecticut, Storrs, Conn., and in the men's division, first place was taken by the team representing Los Angeles City college, Los Angeles, Calif. In May 1941 the National Archery association also sponsored an inter- scholastic contest between teams (6 archers to a team) representing high schools. First place in the girls' division went to Bloomfield high school, Bloomfield, N.J., and first place in the boys' division to Forest Grove Union high school, Forest Grove, Ore. The National Field Archers association inaugurated and successfully carried out a series of field archery contests by mall. An outstanding performance of the 1941 archery season was that of Larry Hughes, the national champion, in making a Single York round score of 142-910 in a competitive event. (L. C. S.) Architects, Amtrfccm Institute of: see AMERICAN INSTI- TUTE or ARCHITECTS. The war was too dominant a factor in the daily and national life of 1941 to allow archi- tecture to continue along its normal progress as an "art of build- ing." The buildings in which individuals were free to choose their form of expression and .carry out their experimentations could no longer be built. The international exchange of thought which had stimulated architectural progress had ceased. No new the- ories as important as those of Frank Lloyd Wright, Le Corbusier or Walter Gropius were expressed. The architecture of the war period became a science of build- ing, which dealt with the problems of supplying as expeditiously as possible the buildings needed for the expansion of the armed forces, of the industries producing war material, and of the housing and incidental building required for the security of na- tions. The war imposed limitations; shortages in materials were felt, air-raid precautions had to be considered, govern- mental 'control was increased, and construction had to proceed with unusual speed. The combination of these factors with the increasing complexity of architecture led toward greater co-oper- ation between specialists. Large-scale planning was undertaken, not only in dealing with the emergency, but also in preparation for the postwar period. Design and Planning. The design of buildings for abnormal war-time needs demanded, aside from rapidity of construction, unusual economy and efficiency. In industrial architecture the one-story factory established itself as the prevalent type due to the manufacturers' desire for large, clear areas unobstructed by columns, stairs or ele- vators. Such buildings allowed for the proper "flow" in produc- tion and easily facilitated changes which came as a result of research, the making of new products or the installation of higher speed machinery. Progress in fluorescent lighting and air condi- tioning made the design of windowless factory buildings practi- cable. Under the consideration of blackouts, night shifts and the effects from solar radiation through glass areas, this type had many advantages to offset its increased initial expense. In the design of housing for the workers (see HOUSING) the re- quirement of low cost was mandatory with the insistence that the rent to the occupant be kept within a reasonable percentage of his earnings (not more than one-fifth). In American defense housing, the cost per family unit was substantially below that of similar units built during the war of 1914-18. Savings were achieved without loss of comfort by cheaper and more efficient construction, the elimination of all unessential features, a par- ing down of the spaces to minimums established for decent living, and the omission of wasteful attics, cellars or rooms for dining. Labour costs were reduced by the use of mass production methods, standardization and prefabrication. To provide the dwellings in as short a time as possible and to avoid "ghost towns" after the war, the government established three classifications of de- fense housing : permanent, demountable and portable. In general, a greater concern over the problems of town and re- gional planning was shown. In Great Britain, this found expres- sion in the formulation of policies for postwar reconstruction. In America, building programs were prepared as a "work reserve" for the period of demobilization. In both places, further need for a central planning authority was indicated. Materials and Methods. The shortage of building materials was particularly felt in the metals, where the difficulty of obtain- ing steel had far-reaching consequences. Aluminum was com- pletely unavailable for building purposes and difficulties were en- countered in the procurement of tin, brass, copper and the alloys. To deal with these shortages, gpvernmental regulations allowed building only wherever necessary for defense or essential to the health and safety of the people. In Great Britain, special authori- ARCHITECTURE zation was required for building operations costing more than 100. The Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, London, issued bulletins dealing with wartime construction meth- ods as affected by fire risks, the vulnerability of glazing under aerial bombardment, the provision of adequate lighting in working spaces combined with methods for blackouts, and the shortages of materials; in all recommended procedures, an attempt was made to maintain comfort at the normal level.' In the United States, a general priorities plan was worked out by the Office of Production Management of the national govern- ment to provide materials for essential construction. To accom- plish this, a priority rating was required for the purchase of critical building materials. No private residential building was considered acceptable for priority if costing more than $6,000 per family unit or demanding rent of more than $50 per month. The feature of demountability, which was adopted for houses and schools in communities to be dismantled after the emergency, gave prefabrication a long-awaited opportunity. The shortage in steel increased the structural use of wood in America, and caused its revival as a building material for the construction of industrial buildings. Larger spans of lighter sections worked into trusses or lamella (lattice-type) roofs became characteristic of modern A f ood construction in opposition to the heavier beams and short spans of the older mill-type construction. Among the materials which were outstanding in the progress of their development were glass and plywood. Both played an im- portant role in that phase of progress in architectural design which grew out of technological changes. The use of glass blocks increased. Sheets of glass rendered unbreakable by heat treat- ment found popular appeal, particularly in store entrances where they permitted the elimination of supporting and enframing mem- bers and thereby gave increased vision. With the development of two-directional bending of plywood for aeroplane construction came suggestions for the application of the new opportunities thus gained, in architecture and interior design. A chair was developed by Saarinen and Eames, which was moulded out of plywood to fit the human form. The 4o-year-old method of plywood production in the United States saw the per- fection of lathes capable of unwinding a continuous veneer 16 ft. wide and i in. thick and a mile in length from an average 6 ft. diameter "peeler" log. The discovery of new types of glues and of synthetic resin bonding agents further improved the quality of plywood and lowered its cost. Plastics came into wider use for all types of building acces- sories, hardware and lighting fixtures. A system of providing comfort by radiating heat at a lower temperature from labyrinths of pipes within the floors or ceilings of rooms gained further acceptance in the United States, where fluctuations of extremes of temperature had hitherto prevented the ready appeal of this method. In keeping with the need for low-cost housing, new types of heating apparatus, economical both as to the use of space and the initial as well as operation cost, were manufactured. Examples of Recent Architecture. In England, according to an official statement from the ministry of works and buildings, more than 200 firms of architects in private practice, employing upward of 650 technical assistants, were engaged in the construc- tion of hospitals, hostels, camps, stores, etc. In addition, panels which contained the names of more than 350 firms of archi- tects were drawn upon for the development of air-raid shelter schemes and government buildings, to report on air-raid damage and advise on the precautions to be taken for the safeguarding of historic buildings. The design of shelters for protection from air raids was approached from a scientific basis, taking into ac- count the destructive effect of bombs, standards necessary for the preservation of morale, the cost, and the distribution of shelters with regard to accessibility. Bomb-proof shelters were advocated by Tecton, architects, in the forms of cylinders built downward into the earth with several stories arranged in spiral fashion. (See also AIR RAID SHELTERS.) In the United States, construction contracts for 1941 indicated the largest volume of building for any year since 1929. The types of buildings which constituted this volume were primarily in the fields of military construction, industrial building and housing for defense workers. Buildings which in normal times occupied the majority of architects had declined in volume. A few examples of civilian architecture, unaffected by the war, were completed. Kleinhans Music hall, Buffalo, N.Y., F. J. and W. A. Kidd, architects, Eliel Saarinen, associate, echoed that type of design in which interest in form and the texture of material were supplemented by a decorative treatment of the surfaces. In the arrangement of the architectural masses the curved shapes of two music halls (dedicated to chamber music and orchestral per- formances) were brought into interesting interplay. The walls, both inside and out, were enriched by geometric patterns obtained through the jointing of the stone and plywood used for the pan- elled walls. In the design for the Washington airport building, Howard L. Cheney, consulting architect, the symmetry about the central axis and the classic proportion of the principal motives of the facades, showed in a dominant central portion the continu- ing popularity of traditional architecture. In contrast, the hangars of this airport, with their undecorated functional use of curved steel trusses, expressed modern functionalism which in part was also discernible in the broad ribbons of glass of the wings of the airport building. The Crow Island school at Win- netka, 111., Eliel and Eero Saarinen, designers, was built of glass and brick in a modern design ; the unusual plan produced in addi- tion to a maximum of natural light for the classrooms and lobby an unusually cheerful atmosphere. In this building, it was shown that recent modern architecture had departed from the boxlike starkness by which it was characterized when it first appeared in Europe. Regional characteristics of modern residential architecture found their expression on the west coast in the work of the archi- tects of Los Angeles and San Francisco, on the east coast by the architects of New York, Boston, Philadelphia and Washing- ton, and in the midwest, in Chicago. Among these, the work of Edward D. Stone of New York showed a use of glass which al- lowed for an uninterrupted visual combination of the outdoors with the inner spaces. It also demonstrated that modern architec- ture could express in designs the characteristics of the individuals for whom they were intended, instead of being impersonal state- ments of the dogmas of a style. Many factories were built of unprecedented size with unusual rapidity. Opinions were divided on the use of natural lighting. The Ford factoiy at Dearborn, Mich., Giffels & Vailet, Inc. and L. Rossetti, architects, was an example of windowless construc- tion. Speed of construction was demonstrated in the building of a 380,000 sq.ft. propeller plant for the Curtiss-Wright corpora- tion at Caldwell, N.J., Albert Kahn, Inc., architects, which was ready for operation within 68 working days from the beginning of excavation. The housing project at Indian Head, Md. was devoted to experi- mentation with and demonstration of prefabrication for residential buildings. Although most houses kept the traditional appearance typified by sloping roofs and the application of some ornamen- tal features to satisfy popular demand, they; .varied substan- tially in their systems of construction. At Grand Prairie, Tex. it was demonstrated that an entire building could be erected and completed on the site within one day. Houses of cylindrical and Above, left: PROPELLER PLANT of the Curtiss-Wright corporation at Caldwell, N.J., completed in 68 days in 1941; Albert Kahn, architect Above, right: BALCONY of the Washington, D.C., airport's adminls- tration building, opened June 16, 1941; Howard L. Cheney, con- sulting architect Upper centre: ROOF TERRACE of apartment building at 240 Central Park South, New York city; Albert Mayer, architect Lower centre: PLANT of Industrial Tape corporation, New Bruns- wick, N.J.; R. G. and W. M. Cory, architects Below, left: ENTRANCE of the School for Crippled Children, Denver, Colo.; Burnham Hoyt, architect Below, right: KLEINHANS MUSIC HALL, Buffalo. N.Y.; F. J. and W A. Kidd, architects, and Eliel Saarinen, associate 66 ARCHIVES, NATIONAL AREAS AND POPULATIONS domed forms were proposed as answers to the problems of low- cost housing and pref abrication. Buckminster Fuller demonstrated the conversion of a mass produced steel grain bin into a demount- able house. A number of dome-shaped residences designed by Wallace A., Neff, architect, were built at Falls Church, Va., by spraying concrete (Gunite) over inflated balloons. Thirty thou- sand dwelling units, out of an estimated demand of 300,000 for workers in defense industries, were designed by independent prac- tising architects under the direction of the division of defense housing of the Federal Works authority. The size of the projects ranged from 20 to 1,690 family units. Row houses and single fam- ily buildings, with flat or sloping roofs, were typical of these. At Vallejo, Calif, the largest project, William Wurster, architect, interesting methods of mass production and assembly were applied. Also other government agencies, such as the Federal Security ad- ministration and the Public Building administration, were greatly active in this field. (See BUILDING AND BUILDING INDUSTRY.) BIBLIOGRAPHY. Sigfried Giedion, Space, Time and Architecture (Cam- bridge, 1941); Frederick Gutheim, Frank Lloyd Wright on Architecture (1941); Tecton, Architects, Planned A.R.P. (1941); Decorative Art, 1941, The Studio Yearbook (1941); Department of Scientific and Industrial Re- search, Wartime Bulletins (London, 1941); Office for Emergency Manage- ment, division of defense housing co-ordination, Standards for Defense Housing (1941); National Resources Planning board, After What? (1941); periodicals for the year 1941, The Architect (London); Journal of the R.LB.A. (London); The Architectu Architectural Record. ( Arohiuoc Motinnal nlUIIVGo, lldllUlldl. This institution ' created congress in 1934 and administered by the archivist of the United States, has as its pri the concentration and preservation in the National Archives build- ing of such noncurrent records of the government of the United States as have permanent value and their administration so as to facilitate their use for governmental or research purposes. Because of its services during the emergency of 1941, the Na- tional Archives was designated in Oct. 1941 as one of the national defense agencies of the government. More than half of the 81,000 cu.ft. of records transferred to the National Archives the fiscal year 1941 came from the war and navy departments and other defense agencies, and the total of 330,000 cu.ft. of material in its custody included many records of World War I that were especially useful to defense agencies seeking info cerning that war. Chiefly as a result of this use, the of requests for services on records received during the year ex ceeded in number those received during the two preceding years combined. The Franklin D. Roosevelt library at Hyde Park, N.Y., which is also administered by the archivist, was dedicated on 1941. The museum portions of the building, opened to the public on that day, were visited by nearly 30,000 persons by Sept. 30. Solon J. Buck took office as archivist of the United States on Sept. 18, 1941, succeeding Dr. R. D. W. Connor, the first archi- vist, who resigned to accept a newly endowed professorship at the University of North Carolina, Arctic Exploration: see EXPLORATION AND DISCOVERY. Areas and Populations of the Countries nf thp World The table that follows & ives the latest avail - Ul UIB Itllllll* able figures for the area in square miles, the population in thousands and the population per square mile of the different countries of the world, Area Name of State (in Square Miles) Andorra 191 Argentina x, 079,965 Australia, Commonwealth of ... 3,157,936 Belgian colonial empire 930,887 Belgium ",775 Bohemia- Mora via, Protectorate of (as of March 1939) (Czecho- slovakia) 18,914 Bolivia (adjusted area) 420,740 Brazil 3,285,246 British colonial empire 3,713,029 Bulgaria 39,825 Burma 261,610 Canada 3,694,863 Chile 286,396 China, total 4,480,092 China Proper 2,003,475 Manchuria (excl. of Kwantung) 482,440 Mongolia 625,783 Tibet 469,294 Colombia 439,997 Costa Rica 23,000 Cuba 44J44 Danzig (as of Sept. i, 1 93Q) . . . 754 Denmark (exclusive of Greenland) 16,598 Dominican Republic 19,326 Ecuador (excl. of uninhabited terri- tory) 175,630 Egypt (excl. of uninhabited terri- Population (ooo's omitted) 6 13,130 7,984 14,140 8,396 6,794 3,350 44,116 70,725 6,305 16,119 11,301 4,684 457,836 422,708 29,328 2,078 3,722 8,702 639 4,253 405 3,825 1,656 3,200 Population Name of State Afghanistan Albania Area (in Square Miles) 250,900 10,800 Population (ooo's omitted) r 0,000 1,063 3L4 12.2 2.5 15.2 713.0 359-2 8.0 13-4 19.0 158.3 61.6 3.1 16.4 IO2.2 145 6 60.8 33 79 19.8 27.8 96.3 537-1 230.4 85-7 18.2 Defense tory) 383,000 16,522 43-1 ral Review Estonia 18,533 1,134 61.2 ral Forum; Finland 147,811 3,800 25-7 W.F.B.) France 212,659 41,980 197 4 French colonial empire 4,687,336 7U74 15-2 r Germany (as of May 1939. Incl. >y act of Memel) 226,196 79,364 350.9 istcrcd by Great Britain and Northern Ire- land, United Kingdom of ... 94,279 47,745 506.4 purposes Greece 50,147 7,io8 I4I.7 ves build- Guatemala 45,452 3,284 72.3 Haiti 10,204 3,000 294.0 he United Honduras 46,332 1,106 23 9 n so as to Hungary (as of April 1939) . . . 40,530 10,186 251.3 Iceland 39,709 1 20 30 JS. India (exclusive of Burma) .... 1,575,187 362,828 230.3 , the Na- Iran (Persia) Iraq 634,360 116,600 15,000 3,700 23.6 31-7 e national Ireland (Eire) 26,601 2,968 in. 6 Italian colonial empire 1,346,415 13,129 9-8 he 81,000 Italy 119,764 43,993 367 3 es during nents and Japan . Japanese empire Latvia 147,702 115,321 25,395 72,876 31,762 1,951 403 4 275 4 76.8 " material Liberia 46,000 2,500 54-3 Liechtenstein 65 12 184.6 that were Lithuania (exclusive of Memel) 22,959 2,879 125,4 tinn rnn- Luxembourg 1,000 30i 301.0 LlV/ll CUii Mexico 763,944 19,546 25-6 e number Monaco 0-59 24 40,678.0 Netherlands 13,203 8,865 671.4 year ex- Netherlands colonial empire . . 789,962 67,719 88.3 ing years Newfoundland and Labrador . . 152,734 296 19 New Zealand 104,751 1,700 16.2 Nicaragua 49,000 1,172 23 9 , which is Norway (including Svalbard) . . . 148,850 2,952 10.8 Oman and Muscat 80,000 500 6.3 June 30, Panama (exclusive of Canal Zone) 28,950 548 18.9 Jie public Paraguay (area adjusted) .... Peru (revised areas) 154,165 482,258 955 7,200 6.2 14 9 pt. 30. Poland 150,470 35,ooo 233.2 CfatAe nn Portugal (incl. Azores and Madeira OUtlCo UIl Ida.) 35,490 7,539 2T2.4 rst archi- Portuguese colonial empire. . . . 803,638 9,46o xi. 8 Rumania 113,919 20,045 176.0 orship at Salvador 13,176 1,745 132.4 I Bu.) San Marino 38 14 368. 4 Saudi Arabia 800,000 4,500 5-6 Slovakia. 18,914 2,691 142.3 RY. *' South Africa, Union of 472,550 10,341 21.9 Spain 194,^08 3597S 133 7 Spanish colonial empire 128,690 1,005 78 Sweden '73,347 6,341 36.6 Switzerland 15,944 4,216 264.4 Thailand (Siam) 200,148 15,718 78.5 cst avail- Turkey 300,214 17,870 59 5 nilpc tViA United States . * 3,022,387 131,670 43-6 lliiCS) LUC e mile of United States territories and pos- sessions 712,822 18,952 26.6 Uruguay. 73,153 3,'i47 29.8 U.S.S.R 8,176,000 170,467 20. 8 Population per Square Mile Vatican City Venezuela Yemen Yugoslavia . 0.17 75,000 95.576 x 3,6iS 3,500 15,703 5,882.4 10.3 46.7 164.3 39-9 984 World Totals 51,237,706 3JS9,X33 43.x ARGENTINA 07 ^ republic on the Atlantic coast of southern South America and second largest country of the conti- nent; language Spanish; Capital, Buenos Aires; President, Dr. Roberto M. Ortiz (acting president, Dr. Ram6n Castillo). The area is 1,079,965 sq.mi., slightly over a third of that of the United States. The religion is Roman Catholic. No official census has been taken since 1914, but official esti- mates placed the population at 13,318,320 as of Dec. 31, 1940. No other American country except Canada has as large a propor- tion of whites. Native-born persons of European stock aggregated 76.9%, mixed bloods 3-2% and foreign-born (almost entirely European) 19-9%. A majority of the population is of pure Spanish stock, nearly a third is Italian or part-Italian, and an estimated 250,000 are German or part -German. Buenos Aires had a population of 2,515,729 (1941 municipal census), or 3,700,- ooo with its suburbs. Other cities (with est. pop.) include: Ro- sario (513,000) ; Avellaneda (suburb of Buenos Aires) (386,000) ; La Plata (248,000); Cordoba (213,000); Santa F6 (147,000); Tucuman (147,000); Bahia Blanca (115,000); Mendoza (82,- ooo); Parana (72,000). In 1916-41, cities and villages of 1,000 or more inhabitants increased their total population by 108% and aggregated 75% of the whole in 1941, while the rural popula- tion remained stationary. Around 45% of the population lives in Buenos Aires province and in the Federal District (the city of Buenos Aires). Government is federal in form, with legislative power vested in a bicameral congress. There are 14 provinces, a federal dis- trict and 10 territories. The constitution is modelled broadly on that of the United States. The provinces, however, have in general less autonomy than do the individual North American states. History. Argentine history in 1941 was marked by sharp in- ternal political conflict, by serious international frictions, notably in regard to nazi propaganda activities, and in general by a closer relationship with the rest of the Americas. In short, Argentine development during the year followed the general course of world events, which vitally affected it, but policies and procedure were conditioned by domestic political considerations. Domestic politics played an important role. With a Conserva- tive acting-president and a chamber of deputies controlled by the opposition Radical (i.e. f Liberal) party, the year was marked by almost constant political strife. Tension increased as the year wore on, and lessened only with the adjournment of congress in October. Much of the political confusion arose from the continued ill- ness of President Ortiz, who, prior to withdrawing in favour of Vice-President Ramon Castillo in July 1940, had enforced a policy of fair elections. Under Ortiz, the Radical party, after wandering in a political wilderness since 1930, had gained control of the lower house of congfess and several provincial govern- ments. Neutral observers conceded that the Radical party had the confidence of the country, and for this reason the party de- manded annulment of fraudulent provincial elections in Mendoza (Dec. 15, 1940) and Santa Fe (Jan. 5, 1941). The Radical party adopted an obstructive policy in congress and refused to pass essential legislation, hoping thus to force free-election pledges from Acting-Pres. Castillo. By May only a handful of bills had been acted upon, no budget for the year had been approved, and no ratification made of the $100,000,000 U.S. Export-Import bank loan to Argentina. When Castillo by executive decree ex- tended the 1940 budget and declared his intention of governing by decree if necessary, the Radical deputies terminated their boy- cott (May 6). Meanwhile, in January, two outstanding cabinet members likewise resigned, reportedly in protest against Castil- lo's election policy Foreign Minister Julio A. Roca (vice-presi- dent from 1932 to 1938) and Finance Minister Federico Pinedo. Amid this heavily charged atmosphere came another serious problem that of nazi and fascist propaganda and other activity in Argentina. Charges of totalitarian propaganda in the army and of subversive activities in other quarters were aired in congress in June. In response to a formal congressional demand, Interior Minister Culaciatti officially admitted intense nazi activities in many directions but denied their importance (June 18). The chamber of deputies thereupon named a committee, headed by Deputy Raul Damonte Taborda, to investigate "activities con- trary to the institutions and sovereignty of the Argentine Re- public." The Damonte committee, although denied administrative and police aid, made a sweeping investigation, and during late August and September presented a series of reports with startling disclosures. It formally charged that the nazi party, although formally dissolved by presidential decree of May 15, 1939, still existed with an organization on military lines throughout Argen- tina, with the German ambassador directing its activities. German embassy expenditures, it was shown, were 36 times as great (5*983,000 pesos) in the year ending June 30, 1941 as in 1938-39; 500,000 pesos in bearer checks had been issued in a single week, part to the nazi propaganda organ El Pampero; the German news agency Transocean was disclosed to be purely a subsidized propa- ganda vehicle. Evidence was given, too, of active axis agents among German schools in the Argentine, of German control of 2,000,000,000 pesos of Argentine business through nazi conquests in Europe, a regular system of assessment of Germans resident in the Argentine, and presence of at least 60,000 nazis in Buenos Aires alone. At the same time, there was revealed the existence of strategically located German groups, not only in Argentine areas such as Patagonia and Misiones territory (the northernmost finger of Argentina), but in other South American countries as well. (See BRAZIL; HISPANIC AMERICA AND WORLD WAR II.) The chamber of deputies quickly passed, by a vote of 88 to i, a resolution declaring German Ambassador Baron Edmund von Thermann persona non grata and demanding his expulsion. Von Thermann himself refused to withdraw, and in September, Acting- Pres. Castillo formally "dissociated" his administration from the congressional demand, an act recalling Pres. Irigoyen's flat dis- regard, in 1917, of a similar congressional resolution after dis- closure of German anti-Argentine activity. Indicative of the administration's unwillingness to antagonize the axis powers was its cautious, legalistic policy toward axis shipping in Argentine harbours. Refusing to follow the lead of the United States, in seizing axis and axis-controlled ships, the government entered into negotiations with Italy and after long delay purchased 16 Italian ships totalling 88,000 gross tons. These were made the nucleus of a state-owned merchant marine. Meanwhile, Argentina had moved toward a hemisphere econ- omy, taking steps in the direction of a qualified Pan Americanism, notably by ratification, in July, of the Havana conference pacts by unanimous vote of both houses of congress. As a result of the Rio de la Plata regional conference in Jan. 1941, a treaty was signed with Brazil (Nov. 21) providing reciprocal progressive reduction of duties on non -competitive commodities, tariff exemp- tion of new industrial products, and improvement of communi- cations between the two countries. Other trade pacts were made with Bolivia and Cuba, and negotiations were started with Chile, Paraguay and Uruguay. Most important of all trade agreements, however, because of its dual political and economic implication, was one with the United States, signed on Oct. 14 after long and protracted negotiations. Under this agreement, tariff duties on 84 items, which accounted for 93% of Argentina's 1938 and 1939 exports to the United States, were cut roughly 50%, while Argentina reduced her duties 68 ARGENTINA on a variety of United States exports by 25% to 50%. The most important Argentine commodities affected were canned meat, wool, hides, linseed and casein. Although the status of Argentine fresh meat was unchanged its importation into the United States having been banned since 1927 on grounds regarded by Argentina as not only flimsy but gratuitously insulting the general effect of the agreement was to remove a major impediment to hemispheric solidarity. Meanwhile, a British contract was made for 500,000 tons of Argentine beef (the entire exportable surplus) in the year ending Oct. 1942. Similar large-scale cotton and grain contracts, were made with Spain (see SPAIN). Conflicting territorial claims in the Antarctic continued to be an issue with Chile; parleys on the subject, although amicable, were without concrete result. Spread of World War II to the Americas raised another question with Chile revision of an 1881 treaty forbidding fortification of Magellan strait (see CHILE). Argentine claims to the Falkland islands were likewise aired dur- ing the year, but with much less fervour than in the past. Late in September the political situation was suddenly obscured by sudden infantry occupation of military airports and grounding of all army planes in what was widely reported to be suppression of a nascent plot. This, and the president's sudden removal of the entire municipal council of Buenos Aires, accentuated the friction between Castillo and the Radicals. The Radicals refused to pass important financial measures until Pres. Castillo promised to permit free provincial elections in December. Castillo re- mained adamant, however, and congress adjourned with the breach still wide. The elections resulted in the expected Con- servative victory. Public attention, however, was diverted by the outbreak of inter-hemisphere hostilities. Japan's attack on the United States came as a hard shock to Argentina's complacent neutrality. Pres. Castillo promptly de- clared that the United States would not be treated as a belligerent, and on Dec. 16 put Argentina in a formal state of siege, with a suspension of constitutional guarantees. Newspapers were for- bidden to print anything "affecting the neutrality of the Argen- tine nation" or against the government, political regime, head of state, or officials of any belligerent nation. Demonstrations, whether pro- or anti-axis, were forbidden, and permission for a mass meeting to pay homage to Pres. Roosevelt was refused. Press and public opinion, however, were so strongly and openly anti-axis that Pres. Castillo recalled the Argentine ambassador to Germany "for consultation," and, on Dec. 31, made a formal declaration of Argentine solidarity with the United States. Education. Education is free and compulsory. In 1940 there were 13,615 elementary schools, with 1,929,818 enrolment; 6,463 of these (enrolment: 927,580) were under complete federal control, the remainder under provin- cial, with federal support, however. An additional 1,167 private schools (as of 1939) had an enrolment of 139,917. Secondary schools of all types numbered 445, and had 75,903 pupils. Six national and one private uni- versities had enrolments aggregating nearly 30,000. Defense. Military or naval service is compulsory. The standing army in 1941 was estimated at 45,000, with potential reserves of 281,000. Modern equipment was almost entirely lacking. The navy comprised 2 battleships, 3 cruisers, 16 destroyers and 3 submarines. Air strength was around 300 planes, A military mission was sent to the United States late in 1941 to make extensive purchases of needed materials. A five-year rearmament plan allotting 712,000,000 pesos for naval and 646,000,000 for military expan- sion was approved by congress in October. Lend-lease aid from the United States approximating $70,000,000 was reported to have been made. Finance. The monetary unit, the peso, had an official exchange value of 26.8 cents U.S. and an unofficial rate of approximately 23 ft cents U.S. in 1941* Budget estimates for 1942 called for an expenditure of 1,600,000,000 pesos (a 46,246,000 peso increase). A 1941 deficit well in excess of early estimates of 150,000,000 pesos was expected. Government revenues are largely from customs duties. Income tax rates reach a maximum of 7% at 250,000 pesos. The public debt on June 30, 1940 totalled 7,724,535,000 pesos (national, 5,291,382,000 pesos; provincial, 1,584,408,000; municipal, 848,745,000), of which 1,952,998,000 pesos, including $190,500,000 in U.S. dollar bonds, were internal. Argentine credit was the highest of any Hispanic American republic in 1941. In Nov. 1941, approximately 2,500,000,000 pesos of 5% internal bonds were converted at 4%. Foreign Trade Argentine imports in 1940 totalled 1,498,757,000 pesos, a 12% gain over 1939; exports were 1,427,933,000 pesos, a 9.2% decline. The United States supplied 29.1% of all imports (1939: 17.2%), Great Britain 19.8% (19.9%), Brazil 7.8% (6.5%), Curasao 4-9% (4.0%), British India 4-3% (3-9%), Peru 3-9% (4.0%), France 3.1% (S-6%), Belgium 2.8% (6.5%), British Asia (except India) 2,4% (2.2%), Canada 2.3% (1.2%). Great Britain took 36.4% of all exports (1939: 35-9%), United States 17.5% (12%), France 5.8% (4.9%), Brazil 5.3% (4-3%), Spain 3.9% (1.9%), Netherlands' 3.7% (8.1%), Italy 3.4% (2.1%), Belgium 2.5% (7.1%), Uruguay 1.7% (i%), Japan 1.5% (0.7%), Sweden 1.4% (2.1%). The principal imports in 1940 were: fuels and lubricants, 17.5%; tex- tiles, 17.4%; machinery and vehicles, 9.9%; iron and iron goods, 9.2%: chemicals, Pharmaceuticals, etc., 8.5%; foodstuffs, 7.2%; metal goods (ex- cept iron), 6%; paper goods, 5.8%. Proportions varied only slightly from those of 1939^ The principal exports were, by value: wheat 19.9% (1939: 17.5%), chilled and frozen beef 13.1% (13-2%); unwashed wool 8.4 % (7.6%), linseed 8.4% (10.8%), hides 7.1% (6.3%), maize 6% (12.9%), washed wool 8.4% (2%), canned meats 3.1% (3.2%), chilled and frozen mutton 2.9% (2.2%), quebracho extract 2.1% (2.7%). While export totals were the lowest, with one exception, in ten years, eight of the ten leading commodities increased in average unit price. The tonnage of cereal exports in 1940 was: wheat, 3,646,603 (1939: 4,745,944), maize 1,874,- 463 (3,196,073). linseed 752,191 (1,183,203), oats 223,382 (3S9,79i), barley 388,867 (194.851), rye 166,414 (194,851), birdseed 9,255 (6,877). Meat exports totalled 562,658 tons (1939: 669,300 tons), hides 131,450 tons (147,556 tons), sheepskins 11,815 tons (15,518 tons), washed wool 25,146 tons (17,471 tons), unwashed wool 99,027 tons (122,691 tons). Quebracho extract exports were 121,375 tons (1939: 195,863 tons), logs 21,853 tons (74,948 tons). Fresh fruit exports declined from 52,700 tons in 1939 to 24,500 in 1940. In the first nine months of 1941, imports declined 25.6%, with the United States supplying 27.8% of the total, Great Britain 18.7%, Brazil 12.8%, Peru 5-8%, India 5%, Curasao 4.8%, Japan 3.6%, Canada 3.3%. Exports were 7.1% less in value, 40.9% less in volume. The United States took 36% of total values (14% in the same period of 1940), Great Britain 32.7%, Brazil 5-8%, Spain 4.6%. Japan 3-5%, Uruguay 1.9%, Chile 1.8%, Bolivia 1.5%, Switzerland 1.2%, Paraguay i%. The decline in vol- ume was due almost entirely to reduced grain and linseed exports, above all of maize, which was one-fifth the 1940 total. Wool tonnage rose 52%, hides 22%, meat 4-7%, dairy products 80.8%. Most of the declines were regis- tered early in the year; by August, however, the downward trend had been reversed, and export values for the first 10 months were off only 3.5%, ex- port volume about 37}4%, while imports were up to 75% of 1940 values. Communication. The greater part of Argentine external commerce is han- dled through Buenos Aires, which is served by numerous steamship lines and is the hub of the country's railway system. Rosario, on the Parana, how- ever, handles more wheat and maize tonnage than does Buenos Aires. Bahia Blanca, to the south, is also an important cattle and grain port. Comodoro Rivadavia, in southern Patagonia, is the centre of the petroleum industry. Argentina has the most extensive railway system in Latin America. The country is linked by rail with Bolivia, Paraguay and Uruguay, and by rail and bus with Chile (through the Transandine railway route and Bariloche in the south). In 1941, 42,112 km. of railways (12,702 km. state-owned) were in operation. Government policy is to extend the state railway system. The Transandine railway, purchased in 1940, was under reconstruction, and unsuccessful negotiations were carried on for acquisition of the six British- owned lines, operating 59% of all mileage and representing an investment of around $627,000,000. An Argentine government-financed rail line into the Bolivian oil-fields was in process of construction by agreement with Bolivia in 1941. During 1941 work was accelerated on the Salta-Antofagasta railway, in construction since 1921. A 6,soo,ooo-peso annual expenditure until 1946 was expected to carry the line to the Chilean frontier at Socompa. Air transport by Pan American airways provides extensive service to all parts of America, with almost daily connections to Chile and Brazil. The Italian "LATI" line began service from Europe (via Brazil) on July 30, but a gasoline boycott compelled cessation in December. State-operated air routes' aggregated some 10,000 km. in 1941, and plans for further exten- sion, including lines to Bolivia and Paraguay, Uruguay, and Brazil, were announced Sept. 19. A private aviation training school was opened near Buenos Aires early in 1941. There were 22 glider clubs, with 32 gliders and i ,000 members in 1941. The Argentine merchant marine aggregated some 300,000 gross tons in 1941, most of it state-owned. Under war conditions, strenuous efforts at further expansion were made. In 1941 there were 308,248 km. of roads of all types, with 55,403 km. additional under construction. Approximately 65,000 km. were national, although the federal government contributes toward provincial highway development as well. Maintenance is cfiiefly through a gasoline tax, with annual expenditures around 100.000,000 pesos (101,715,000 in 1941). Al- though highway mileage was greatly expanded after 1930. the number of automobiles declined from 435,822 to 423,942 in 1939, because of import restrictions, with an increased age of cars in actual service from 7.5 to 1 1. 9 years. Agriculture. Argentina's resources are principally agricultural and pas- toral, with 10.8% (74,130,000 ac.) and 44.4% (306,404,000 ac.), respec- tively, of the country's area devoted to them in 1941. Together they ac- count for well over 90% of all export values. The chief agricultural products are cereals and linseed. In 1941-42 the area devoted to principal crops (in hectares; i hect. = 2,471 ac.) was 1 wheat, 7,190,000; maize (1940-41), 6,097,600; linseed, 2,733,000; oats, 1,440,000; barley, 702,000; rye, 947,ooo; birdseed, 54,000; rice (1940-41) 30,500; sugar cane (1939-40), 188,714; vineyards (1939-40), 137,934; cotton (1940-41), 336,600; sunflower seed (1940-41), 530,000; alfalfa (1939-40), 5,402,400; potatoes (1940-41), 241,800. Total cereal and lin- seed acreage was 4.4% less than in 1940, despite an increase in wheat Tonnage produced was: wheat 7,380,200; linseed 1,459,600; maize 10,450,- ooo; oats 539.500; barley 789,000; rye 212,200; sugar cane 5,835,075 (1939-40); cotton 154,794; sunflower seed, 370,000; rice 57,000 (11,089 tons imported in 1940); potatoes 1,053,000; grapes 953,866 (1939-40) In 1940, 1,455,725 tons of wheat, 539,443 of sugar and 6,706,804 of grapes were processed, nearly all for domestic consumption, Oflkial estimates as of June 30, 1938 showed a total of 45,916,768 sheep, 34.317,663 cattle, 8,262,057 horses, 4,760,755 goats, 3,381,439 swine and 791,199 asses and mules in Argentina. During 1940, 6,983,694 cattle, 7,518,169 sheep and 1,176,469 hogs were slaughtered, of which 2,120,877 cattle, 4,582,452 sheep and 169,186 hogs were for export. Official 1940 production estimates were: 7,800,000 cowhides, 11,100,000 sheepskins, 176,000 tons of wool. The dairy industry was increasing in importance in 1941. Production in 1939 was 34,248 tons of butter, 51,065 tons of cheese and 20,781 tons of casein. Some 9,208 tons of eggs were exported. The small fishing industry was being expanded in 1941. Forestry. ~ -Timber is limited except in the subtropical north, where que- bracho, source of tannin, and yerba mate (Paraguay tea) arc well devel- oped, the latter for domestic consumption as well as export. Argentina nor- mally produces most of the world supply of both. Manufacturing. Manufacturing underwent extensive development after 1935. Comparative figures from the 1939 and 1935 industrial censuses showed a 32.7% increase in the number of establishments (to 53,866) and 30.4% in number of employees (to 618,606). Subsequently, a probably much greater increase took place. The chief production is in foodstuffs, textiles, forestal products, paper, printing and chemicals and Pharmaceuticals. Prac- tically all manufacturing is for domestic consumption. Mineral Production. Argentina ranked nth in the world production of petroleum in 1941. In 1940 petroleum production, 3,276,496 metric tons, was 10.7% greater than in 1939. Approximately 60% came from state-owned wells. The first nine months of 1941 showed a further increase of 10.67%. Some 75% came from the ( omodoro Rivadavia fields in Chubut territory (in southern Patagonia), the rest from Ncuqu&i territory and Salta and Mendoza provinces along the Andean foothills. During 1940 mining advanced considerably, as axis buyers acquired con- trol of some 50% of the tungsten and mica output, the only metals pro- duced regularly. Some beryllium, lead concentrates, tartarate of lime and borax are exported irregularly. In 1941 Japanese control of the tungsten supply was thwarted by a United States purchase agreement with the Argen- tine government. (L. W BF ) The "Apache state" lies in the southwestern part of the United States of America. It borders Mexico on the south; the Colorado river forms most of the western boundary. Arizona and New Mexico are the youngest of the United States, both being admitted in 1912. By federal census of 1940, the area is 113,5^0 sq.mi.; pop. 499,261, 65-2% rural and 34-8% urban. Native and foreign-born whites (including Mexicans) numbered 389>955 an d 36,837 respectively; Negroes, 14,993; other races (mostly Indians), 57,476. The capital is Phoenix with a population of 65,414. Chief cities are: Tucson (36,818); Douglas (8,623); Mesa (7,224); Globe (6,141); Prescott (6,018); Bisbee (5,853); Yuma (5,325) and Flagstaff (5,080). History. The state officials in 1941 were: chief justice, Al- fred C. Lockwood; governor, Sidney P. Osborn; secretary of state, Harry P. Moore; attorney-general, Joe Conway; treasurer, Joe Hunt. Governor Osborn in 1941 proposed the consolidation of bureaus and offices, a new board of control for the state hospital, and an increase of old-age pensions from $30 to $40 per month. The last two measures were formulated into law. Education. According to the report of 1939-40 the enrolment and teach- ing force of the various branches stood, respectively, as follows: elementary schools 87,960 and 2,670; high schools 22, ^45 and 934; University of Ari- zona at Tucson 2,906 and 275; State Teachers college at Tempe 1,505 and 72; State Teachers 1 college at Flagstaff 545 and 41. In addition, there were 32 private, parochial and federal Indian schools with a total enrolment of 7,208. Public Welfare, Charities, Correction. In Nov. 1941 there were 38,872 per- sons receiving assistance from the state department of social security and welfare, with a total state expenditure for the month of $330,911. In \ov. 1940 there were 38,664 persons receiving $443,170. State aporopriations for 1941 were as follows: industrial school $57,370; juvenile girl offenders loodmg Agricultural Products of Arizona, 1941 and 1940 Crop ig-ji U'st.) iy40 Wheat, bu. . 465,000 819,000 Oats, bu ^ 7 7,000 2Q7.OOO Sorghum Rruin bu . .... 1,508,000 880 ooo Corn, bu 406,000 362,000 Cotton lint, bales . , . , :, (irapefruit, boxes , :,- ; i ^ Oranges, boxes . ,' 203,000 3.000,000 600,000 IQ5.OOO >, 650,000 5OO,OOO Horses, head . , 70,000 70,000 Cattle, head . 800,000 864,000 Sheep und larnl>s head 70 \ ooo 755 ooo BRITISH MANIKINS modelled the latest creation* of London dressmaker* at Buenos Aires and other South American capitals in May 1941 in a concerted drive to capture the Latin American style trade $50,000; pioneer home $75,630; prison $181,540; state hospital for insane $298,675; school for deaf and blind $83,870. Communication The total road mileage in 1941 was 28,291; 3,453 mi. were improved and 3,644 were under the state system. Total railroad mile- age, Dec. 31, 1939, was 2,234. Bonking and Finance National banks in 1941 had deposits of $70,202,- ooo, loans of $34,911,000 and investments of $17,595,000. Stale banks had deposits of $30,451,000, loans of $11,124,000 and investments of $12,- 466,000. Agriculture. C'trus fruit, cotton, lettuce and beef cattle ordinarily com- prise three-fourths of the value of farm products of Arizona. Manufacturing. Only 3.4% of the population were engaged in manufac- turing in the state in 1941. The most important industries were food, tex- tile, metal and lumber products. Mineral Production. Seven districts ordinarily contributed 99% of the output of copper for the state. The copper output for 1941 was estimated at 671,000,000 Ib. The value of all mineral products for 1941 was esti- mated at $100,000,000. (H. A. H.) In the s uth-central U.S., Arkansas was the 25th state admitted to the union (1836). Its older popular name is "Bear state," the newer (by act of the legisla- ture), "Wonder state." Area, 55,336 sq.mi.; pop. (1940) 1,949,- 387. The population is predominantly rural, although the 1940 census showed a slight movement to the cities, the urban popula- tion having increased from 20-6% in 1930 to 22-2% in 1940. The white population was 1,466,084; Negro, 482,578; other races, 725; foreign born, 7,692. Only 3,210 aliens registered in 1941 under the federal law. The capital is Little Rock (88,034). Other cities are Fort Smith (36,584); Hot Springs (21,370); Pine Bluff (21,290); North Little Rock (21,137); El Dorado (15,858); Tcxarkana (11,821). History. The following state officials, all Democrats, were inaugurated on Jan. 14, 1941, for a two-year term: Homer M. Ad- 69 70 ARMIES OF THE WORLD kins, governor; Bob Bailey, lieutenant governor; C. G. Hall, sec- retary of state; Jack Holt, attorney-general; Otis Page, land com- missioner; Earl Page, treasurer; J. Oscar Humphrey, auditor; J. S. Holt, associate justice of the supreme court. The outstand- ing act of legislation in 1941 was the refunding of the highway debt with the RFC at a lower rate of interest. To make assur- ance doubly sure, court proceedings and a referendum were held on the bill. Other acts of importance were: allowing cities of the first class to levy taxes to pay salaries and pensions of firemen and policemen; establishment of civil service in cities with r a population of 20,000 and more; authorizing the governor to join interstate compacts for the conservation of oil and gas; forbidding political parties to name candidates except through primaries or conventions (this was a slap at the Democratic state central committee for naming a candidate for U.S. senator) ; ex- empting servants, farm labourers and others from the workmen's compensation law; reorganizing the board of trustees of the Uni- versity of Arkansas and taking the governor and the secretary of the board of education off the board. According to the old plan of congressional apportionment, Arkansas would have lost one seat in the U.S. house of representatives and Michigan would have gained one. Congress, however, amended the law for "equal proportions" for representation instead of "major fractions/' and Arkansas held its seven seats in 1941. Arkansas had received, by the end of 1941, defense contracts amounting to $12,610,000, among them a munitions plant at Jacksonville and a $33,000,000 aluminum plant on Lake Ca- therine, near Hot Springs. A $20,000,000 power plant was con- templated, but in the meantime a tie-up with Grand river dam in Oklahoma was to supplement local power. Education. The enrolment in the public schools in 1941 was: grades one to eight, 398,246; grades nine to 12, 73.708, a total of 471,954; teachers numbered 13,173; expenditures were $14,023,914. At the state university in the fall semester, 1941, the enrolment was 2,443; teachers numbered 186. Enrolment in state teachers' colleges was 1,040; teachers, 82. Public Welfare, Charities, Correction Appropriations for welfare in 1941 amounted to $7,000,000, plus $884,440 for administration; confederate pensions, $300,000; firemen's pensions, $300,000; teachers' retirement, $207,000; food and cotton stamps, $200,000; employment, $91,000. The penitentiary had 900 white inmates, 800 Negro (including 45 women); the state farm for women had 68. The legislature appropriated $528,800 for the penitentiary; $67,960 for the boys (white) industrial school; $50,390 for the girls' industrial school; $64,350 for the Negro boys industrial school. Communication. The state had 9,289.3 mi. of highways in 1941, of which 1,242.7 were concrete, 486.8 asphalt, 1,357.1 bituminous and 5,575.8 gravel. The appropriations for 1941-43 were: $19,650,000, including $3,000,000 county highway fund, $10,000,000 federal, and $6,650,000 state highway. The railway mileage was 4,538. Banking and Finance. State bank and trust companies numbered 167 in 1941; building and loan associations, 9. The resources of the former amounted (Sept. 24, 1941) to $121,062,240; deposits, $108,159,436. The national banks numbered 50 with $143,121,585 in assets and $128,831,694 in deposits (Dec. 31, 1940). State revenue received in 1939-41 was $63,016,301.78. On Dec. 31, .1941 the debt was $146,850,223, a reduction of $4,611,629 from Nov. 1939. Agriculture The total value of crops produced in Arkansas in 1940 was $169,000,000. The cotton crop in 1940 uas valued at $69,712,000; corn, $24,884,000; rice, $6,919,000. To bio I. leading Agricultural Products of Arkantai, 1940 and 1939 Crop 1940 1939 Cotton, Corn, bi Rice bu bales i. 1,540,000 42,003,000 9 741,000 1,351,209 2 fftS 242 Manufacturing. In 1939, the industries of Arkansas turned out products valued at $160,166,984 ami employed 39,438 persons to whom they paid wages of $30,787,479- TofeU II. Principal lnduttrh$ of Arkama*, 1939 and 1937 Industry Value of Products J939 1937 Sawmills tad kindred works Cottotseed oil, etc Petroleum refining . . Nonalcoholic beverages $35,222,273 17,340,538 14,327,824 5,632,283 5,441,196 4,910,418 3.818.381 135,963,098 14,383,526 21,320,560 878,381 6,627,435 5,384,284 3.661.077 Household and office furniture . . Bread and bakery products Newspaper publishing and printing Mineral Production. The total value of mineral production in Arkansas in 1940 was $33,705,929; in 1939 it was $28,563,693. Table III. Principal Mineral Products of Arkantat, 1940 and 1939 Mineral Value, 1940 Value, 1939 Petroleum $21,239,515 $16,931,240 Coal Bauxite Manganese Natural gas 4,480,713 2,804,144 126,290 578,808 4,103,020 2,293,455 89,178 545,g36 Natural gasoline ... 520,669 754i79 Armies of the World. (D. Y. T.) During the year 1941, 30 armies of the world engaged in warfare as World War II extended widening circles of conflict on land and sea and in the air. The preceding 16 months had seen some armies disappear following defeat in major engagements. Others were ineffective and offered no serious resistance to attack. Victorious armies continued the march of conquest and consolidated fresh gains in new territories. Large armies remained engaged in major conflicts. New armies entered the war within the closing weeks of the year.. In Russia, Germany and Finland opposed the enormous and partially tested strength of the Soviet Red army. In western Europe, North Africa, the near east, the far east and in China the armies of the dictatorships remained opposed to the forces of the democracies. In the western hemisphere, the United States, at- tacked by Japan, without declaration of war and in the midst of peaceful efforts, entered the war on Dec. 8, 1941. There had been widespread unprovoked attacks on U.S. outposts in the Pacific before the Japanese declaration of war. Japan also declared war against Great Britain while the British and the nations as- sociated with them entered the war against the Japanese. In a world of conflict all armies of the world were affected in large or small degree. Each played a role, first in relation to national policy, and second, dependent upon international demands. A limited military analysis of the armies of the world without weighing these policies emphasizes principally the results of military action, For the most part, the armies examined here par- ticipated in campaigns during 1941. A brief examination is in- cluded of those armies preparing for but up to Jan. i, 1942 not actively engaged in combat. Any contemporary analysis of the principal armies of the world is limited by the restrictions im- posed by warfare censorship. All factual information is presented after careful selection from material secured from the best avail- able sources. Germany. By Jan. i, 1941 the German armies had overrun Denmark and Norway; repulsed British attempts to dislodge them ; invaded and defeated Luxembourg, Holland and Belgium ; outflanked the ill-famed Maginot defenses; eliminated effective British and French opposition on the continent; acquired an Italian ally; and closed 16 months of combat marked by a rising tide of nazi supremacy on modern battlefields. All German theory of the conduct of military combat has been based upon the im- mutable principles of war. Political circumstances, as well as the application of modern machinery, demanded changes in the mod- ern application of this theory. The results of defeat in World War I, the restrictions of the Versailles treaty, the complete co- ordination of all political, social, industrial and military strength within a unified plan of grand strategy, the full exploitation of diplomatic geographical advantages, increased mobility gained by the development and application of the combustion engine, im- proved techniques in propaganda and the war of nerves, the re- lentless pursuit of perfection in details; these plus an inspired and cultivated national determination to re-establish the invin- cibility of German arms, combined to produce a national military machine unprecedented in power, secured by resounding success, ARMIES OF THE WORLD 71 and prepared to extend the area of conquest during the year 1941. Organization. Never before in history had the principle of a 1 'nation in arms" been so fully developed. The whole nation had been organized and blended as a unit for the sole purpose of aggressive war. The German armies wfere organized as a part of the large team combining all effective elements of national strength. A principal factor peculiar to the German organization was the co-ordination of high command in the realization of the single purpose : the prosecution of war. Tables I and II present a brief analysis of the national organization and the relation of the military forces to all other national efforts. Table I The Nation The Fuehrer Adolf Hitler . i Production Gocring Party Propaganda (?) Gocbbels Police Himmler Labour . Ley Finance Funk For. A/. Ribbentrop Mil. A/. Keitel Table II The Armed Forces Commander in Chief Adolf Hitler I Chief of General Staff Keitel Army Commander General Staff Chief Navy Commander General Staff Chief Air Forces Commander General Staff Chief These tables illustrate the concentration of power and effort, and the simple channels of command, and suggest the relative ease with which unified control can be assured for any plan or project. No table can solve specific problems, and any solution must rest upon the co-ordination of many parts and the resolu- tion of many intangibles. However, all planning within this chan- nel of command appears to rest upon a single principle. That principle, in the popular language of the German press, has been stated as follows: "The right man is everywhere and always put in the right place." The method of arriving at a solution to a specific problem appealed to be as follows: The national and international aspects of the political, economic and social elements of the problem are examined and a decision announced by the national organiza- tion outlined in Table I. This decision is presented to the chief of the general staff as a mission by the commander-in-chief of the armed forces. The chief of the general staff then translates this mission into a directive which, when approved by the com- mander-in-chief, is discussed at a meeting of the commanders of the three armed services, army, navy and air forces. Above all other consideration, the primary decision reached by this group is the selection of a single commander to whom full responsibility as well as all available resources are given to accomplish the par- ticular task. This commander may be a member of any one of the three armed services. His selection is made principally de- pendent upon the nature of the mission to be performed and because he is considered to be the individual most likely to suc- ceed. Once chosen, this commander becomes directly responsible to the chief of staff of the armed forces and to the commander- in-chief for the successful accomplishment of the mission. In addition, it is an established policy to grant to the commander in these cases not only the full responsibility and the available means, but also the widest exercise of initiative in carrying out his mission. The task force system results in the organization of fighting teams composed of units from the army, the navy and the air forces. This system substitutes interdependence among the fight- ing branches for the independent or separate control method sought by the army, navy and air forces in other nations. By carefully determining the forces, i.e., the tools, required to per- form the task, this system permits close control and full co- ordination in accomplishing the particular objective. So far as Germany is concerned, and insofar as the German armies reflect the national will, this type of organization was successful during more than two years of modern warfare. Tactics. The outstanding military development shown by the German action in campaigns has been the successful use of armoured and air forces in close and continuous co-ordination with other ground troops. During 1941, and principally in the campaigns in the east, the German armies developed and applied tactics popularly known as the "wedge" and the "kessel." The panzer, or armoured divisions, formed the spearhead of a gigantic phalanx moving toward the opposition. Immediately in rear of the spearhead, motorized divisions are grouped and move for- ward at the same speed. This phalanx, or armoured wedge, sought to create openings in the enemy line. As the advance of the wedge continues, second line infantry divisions move up on the flanks increasing the width of the wedge and decreasing gaps between wedges. The strategic rate of speed of the whole force is based on the march rate of the infantry divisions. Once the shock wedges create gaps, they form the walls dividing the parts of the enemy line which have become separated. The shock wedges then swing right or left to surround the sectors which have been Table III Comparative Strength of fh CWef Warring Powers* Arm and Population Area (sq. mi.) Population Allies United States. . Great Britain (Empire) Russia China (Unoccupied) ... Netherlands Indies Total 3,738,395 U.530,ii3 8,810,791 4,060,092 738,267 132,000,000 504,218,200 19*1695,710 207,000,000 70,500,000 30,896,558 1,106,413,910 Axis Germany (before Sept. 1939) Japan (before July 1937) ... Italy Hungary Finland Bulgaria . . Rumania. . Total 263,618 260,644 119,800 59,380 131,588 42,808 72,5^5 93,000,000 97,697,555 44,557,000 13,507,093 3,834,662 6,549,664 14,098,850 950,363 273,245,7*4 Armies Men Divisions Allies United States Great Britain Russia China Netherlands Indies 1,600,000 3,000,000-3,500,000 3,000,000-5,000,000 2 ,000,000-6,000,000 100,000 60-70 150-250? ? Axis Germany apan ... taly Hungary . Finland . . Bulgaria . . Rumania 6,000,000-8,000,000 x, 800,000 1,500,000 180,000-450,000 200,000- 2 5O,OOO 180, 000-450,000 800,000- 1 , 200,000 280-300 60-66 60 10-20 *4 1O-2O 30-;,5 Taken from New York Times of Dec. 14, 1941. For naval forces see NAVIES OF THE WORLD. For aircraft combatants see AIR FORCES OF THE WORLD. The United States department of commerce census bureau according to a New York Times dispatch dated Dec. 17, 1941 estimates Allied manpower between 18 and 35 years of age to oe 56,643,000. The same dispatch indicates a census bureau estimate of Axis manpower in the same age group to be 28,560.000. The newspaper account indicates that these totals do not include figures for China, India and the Dutch East Indies. Including these nations the Allied total is estimated as 163,887,000. The reported estimates appear to be based upon the following: Allies Axis United States and possessions . a 2,796,000 Japan 10,839,000 Russia . . . ... . . . . . 23,574,000 Germany n,a8i,ooo England (not including India) . 10,273,000 Italy 6,440,000 56,643,000 ^Corrected for known losses up until Dec. 12, 1041. 28,560,000 72 ARMIES OF THE WORLD split off from the main body of the opposition. Then the infantry divisions in rear of the cutting edge of the wedges move forward and carry out the encirclement and destruction of the enemy groups which have been separated and cut off. This encirclement and destruction represent the final play of the tactical move. This action is known as the "kessel." The word "kessel" is adapted from a hunting term applied to the practice of encircling game, driving it toward the centre, and destroying it. In the tactical sense, the rapid creation of gaps at weak points in enemy lines, the cutting off of sectors of the line between gaps, the rapid inrush of infantry troops to encircle these sectors and eventually destroy the opposition, have all become a continuous sequence of the German tactics as practiced on the modern battlefield. Throughout this type of operation the combat air forces prepare the way and then give continuous support to the ground forces. Overhead the air forces operate immediately in front of the ad- vancing elements of the wedges and later join in the destruction of the encircled enemy forces. The outstanding characteristics of the whole tactical operation can be summarized as follows : A. Concentration of armoured forces and motorized infantry elements in a spearhead or wedge attack. B. Shock action to create gaps at one or more weak spots. C. Rapid separation of the enemy line into several sectors. D. Swift encirclement and relentless destruction of the surrounded ele- ments, The adoption by the German army of the task force organiza- tion, and the tactical development of the "wedge" and "kessel" type of air-ground action, do not indicate excessive rigidity in the composition of forces or in the conduct of operations. On the contrary, this type of organization and the co-ordination of all arms which it insures permit great flexibility within command channels, and introduce fluidity in tactical movement. The task force may be of any size and may include a few or several units from one or all the armed services. The close co-ordination of air and ground combat units allows maximum mobility and rapidly brings pressure against predetermined weak spots. Other elements of interest in the composition of the German armies as indicated in reports of operations during 1941 are dis- cussed in the following paragraphs under appropriate headings. Combat Troops. During 1941 two types of armoured division, the large and the small size, appeared. The main difference is noted in the tank brigade, either medium or light, which is inte- gral with the large division while the small division has a light tank regiment. Motorized Division. Motorized divisions consisting of artillery on self-propelled mounts, motorized reconnaissance units, some tank units and motorized infantry, have accompanied the armoured divisions. The result is that a strong infantry-artillery team is thus made available to capitalize on the advantages gained by the air-ground support and armoured divisions. The German armies have developed a number of anti-tank weapons which are moved on self-propelled mounts. These weapons have similar characteristics in that each is designed to deliver effective fire power from a mobile base or platform. In use these anti-tank weapons are grouped in "tank destroyer" units which appear to be loosely organized and as yet not cc-ordinated in any fixed form applicable to all parts of a German field force. The development is significant since it emphasizes that experi- ence gained in actual combat indicates a need for an organic anti- tank force. The trend of development appears to be toward masses of roving mobile guns, capable of offensive as well as de- fensive action, comprising mainly self-propelled armoured gun mounts, accompanied by air and ground reconnaissance units as wcH*as some motorized infantry and pioneer services. Miscellaneous. Other developments in the German armies in- clude the appearance of parachute troops in large numbers, some units equipped with camouflaged chutes; air-borne infantry in transport planes and, in some cases, in towed gliders; flame- thrower units for close-in attack of small fortifications; the sub- stitution of the German civilian "volkswagen," or small commer- cial passenger automobile adapted for military use, in place of the motorcycle; amphibian tanks of medium size, 25-30 tons, trans- ported to coastal waters on shallow-draught carriers and also ca- pable of making river and stream crossings; the employment of dogs with ground reconnaissance and patrol units; the develop- ment of reconnaissance units consisting of light troops including cavalry, horse and mechanized cyclists, armoured and scout cars, and a co-ordinated messenger service, the wide use of inflated rubber pontoons and other boats and improvised rafts ; the front line employment of pioneer units incorporated in motorized divi- sions and also in the reduced size panzer or armoured divisions. In addition to these developments mention should be made of the German perfection of their methods for combat exercise training; march discipline; traffic control; supply; medical, veteri- nary, provost and postal services; extension of the labour bat- talion service; and the introduction of a semi-military corps of civilian officials performing rear area duties and releasing large numbers of military personnel for combat zone service. Above and beyond all these particular developments, each im- portant as an example of actual combat experience, are the im- provements in air power and especially the co-ordination between air and surface (both ground and water) units and the substitu- tion of mass air bombings for the time-honoured duel between masses of artillery guns. Summary. The German nation is organized for continuous and unlimited support of the single purpose: the prosecution of total warfare. The type of organization employed permits the creation of flexible task forces incorporating predetermined per- centages of army, navy and air force units, trained to accomplish a specific job under the command of a single commander chosen for the particular task. Combat experience indicates that interior organization of combat units permits rapid reorganization to meet local needs with a marked tendency toward increase in air forces and panzer tir armoured divisions. In all cases there has been improvement in combat air operations co-ordinated directly with ground operations, while strategic air combat continues as a separate air activity. German authorities without underrating the importance of the support received from all elements of the home front, attributed the success of German armies to the following military factors: A. The strategic and tactical employment of air power. B. The employment of armoured forces and motorized infantry. C. The aggressive action of ground divisions on foot accomplishing the complete elimination of effective opposition. Great Britain. After 16 months of warfare the British armies by Jan. 12, 1941 had been forced out of the principal areas of western Europe and had been limited to operations in Africa, the near east and the defense of the British Isles. During 1941 in- creasingly large forces from the British dominions and colonies joined with British forces to extend military operations in new theatres of war. These developments introduced several changes in the British types of army organization and required modification in the application of the basic British theory of combat. While the campaigns in Greece and Crete, the operations in Libya and Egypt, and the British success against Italian armies in East Africa all varied in particulars, each contributed marked changes resulting from actual combat experience. The conduct of the several campaigns is discussed under WORLD WAR II, An ex- amination of. the British armies indicated the following basic developments. Theory of Combat. The general war policy of the British has been based upon defense of the outlying posts of the empire and Above, left: ANTI-AIRCRAFT BATTERY in action at Lake Charles, La., during war games of the 3rd U.S. army in Aug. 1941 Above, right: U.S. MARINES rehearsed in landing boats in 1941 alongside the ex-liner "Manhattan/* converted into a troop transport ship Left: THE TRAINING OF U.S. TROOPS for ski-patrol duty began at Mt. Rainier, Wash., during the winter of 1940-41 Below: CIRCLE OF FIRE lighted by U.S. troops as a night target for messages dropped from a friendly observation plane, during the army's large-scale war games in Louisiana in Sept. 1941 74 ARMIES OF THE WORLD the defense of the British home front. This theory has not changed in its basic' concept, but the development of methods to accomplish these objectives, and the application of these methods, resulted in changes in army organization and battlefield tactics. While beyond the home front limited campaigns have been con- ducted, at home the theory of defense still applies with greater emphasis on air and anti-air activities defensively, plus develop- ment of offensive air power, coupled with widespread civilian defense and industrial mobilization. The results of these activities have been seen in the creation of a large armed force in England. The first step in this develop- ment was a careful selection of men for service with the army, the navy and the air forces. This selection process permitted the assignment of men especially qualified for each branch, and also permitted the adoption of a school system wherein men were trained for specific duties. In conjunction with this selection system, the British started large-scale training programs to de- velop apprentices in all war industries, and adopted a civilian draft law which permitted the assignment of all able-bodied men and women to civilian tasks according to ability. Within the British Isles the whole population was included in plans for home defense. Civilian air-raid warning service was established. Air- raid precaution programs engaged millions of civilians as wardens, firemen, medical attendants and in associated tasks. In the military services the development of radio and other means for detection of enemy aircraft, the improvement in anti-aircraft defenses, and the great increase in air defense over the islands as well as air offensives against the invasion coast and against mili- tary objectives in Germany, all marked the changes in defense of the British home front. The national productive capacity was organized to meet the requirements of the war effort. Meanwhile, defense plans had to provide protection for vital water and land communications. The whole character of British defense methods had been changed to meet the continued air attacks and the ever- present threat of invasion. Considerable success had been made in the development and in the actual operations of all these methods of defense. Particular success had been accomplished in air tactics, anti-aircraft defenses and the civilian air-raid warn- ing and precautions agencies. In both cases the British theory, while modified by develop- ments in 1941, still necessarily rests heavily upon the use of naval power and still employs naval strength to establish con- fining blockades, to maintain communications between combat zones and the home front, and to insure the uninterrupted flow of supplies for war purposes. Any discussion of the British armies must include reference to this initial reliance upon sea power, the rapid development of air power both defensively and offensively, and the demands for interior reorganization of units resulting from actual combat experience. Some of the other developments within the British armies in- cluded: increases in mobile artillery operating with ground in- fantry; creation of mobile anti-tank defense units; gradual growth of tactical air combat co-ordination with ground forces; application of battlefield mobility particularly in open desert war- fare; improvement in battlefield communications. Weaknesses noted included shortages in modern tanks, anti-tank weapons and mobile anti-tank weapon carriers; failure to secure flexibility in organization of armoured forces permitting large-scale operations for sustained periods; inadequacy of motor maintenance and sup- ply systems; shortage in combat aviation for co-ordinated use with ground forces. Summary. At the close of 1941, British armies were denied a foothold on the western European peninsula. Brilliant success had marked the stubborn advance of independent forces in East Africa, and periodic but erratic success had been accomplished in open mechanized ground and air combat in northern Africa. On the whole, British forces were employed in long-range defensive warfare with occasional aggressive actions resulting in limited gains except in East Africa where decisive results were achieved. A gradual scheme of reorganization was noted, more pronounced in the campaigns in North Africa than in other theatres. All land action appeared to be greatly influenced by naval action and strategic air combat as well as more extensive employment of armoured and mechanized ground forces. Morale appeared to be superior on all fronts. The British armies appeared to be slowly approaching the strength required to launch sustained attacks seeking a decisive victory. Engaged with enemies in Europe employing land-based armies relatively independent of sea-borne supply and communications, and forced to employ her navies for both Atlantic blockade and convoy duty as well as open warfare in the Pacific, Great Britain continued to rely on naval strength and air power to establish an eventual superiority permitting her reorganized and re-equipped land armies opportunities for decisive operations. Italy. Italian armies continued to play a minor role in the operations of nxis forces during 1941. The Italian theory of combat has always included the creation of a strong defensive base within Europe, permitting the initiation of limited offensives supported by naval action and strong combat air action. The first 16 months of combat proved that the Italian theory could not be supported in practice. Severe defeats were inflicted by the Greeks in western Greece and in Albania. Initial success in Libya had been seriously threatened by the rapid sweep of British forces to the west. In East Africa, victories over poorly equipped native forces were subject to strong British offensives. All Italian action during 1941, on a scale large enough to allow analysis of strategic and tactical importance, was confined to northern and eastern Africa. Italian operations in the Greek and Russian theatres appeared to be minor, and existed apparently despite Italian inac- tivities. East Africa. In this theatre Italian^ armies, estimated at about 1 10,000- 200,000, were engaged at widely separated points by independent British forces during 1941. Shortages in basic supplies of food, fuel and ammuni- tion; limited capacities for motor maintenance; the loss of supply routes due to inferior naval and air power; and the guerrilla warfare employed by native troops, all contributed to Italian defeats. Italian organization in- cludes modern armoured forces as well as motorized divisions and especially emphasizes the characteristics of units trained and equipped for mountain operations and desert warfare. It is unlikely that the full strength of the Italian forces was ever employed in East Africa since the lack of basic supplies and the continued inferiority in the air and naval strength precluded the initiation of long-range offensive action. The armies appeared to split up into independent forces, each adopting local defense tactics and all em- ploying to the fullest extreme the advantages of the difficult terrain. De- fense tactics indicated excellent organization of the limited field artillery forces and stubborn local defenses within the limitations of available equip- ment. Summary. The Italian armies were engaged in numerous campaigns in Greece, Albania, North Africa, East Africa and the Ukraine during this period. No major offensive produced decisive results. Defensive actions in East Africa were stubbornly fought and indicated improvement in Italian artillery organization despite the loss of the defended areas. The Albanian offensive was a failure. Minor offensives were launched in Africa on lim- ited objectives by Italian mechanized and motorized forces. Joint Italian and German forces launched larger offensives in northern Africa, and Italian ground and air forces operated in Greece and in the Russian theatre with German columns. Shortages in modern mechanized equipment, limitations on air action, probably due to inadequate pilot and ground organizations, and the ever-present restrictions on land operations in Africa where supply lines by sea were subject to British naval and air attack, all contributed to reducing Italian operations to minor importance. In addition it became apparent that the Italian civilian support was not wholehearted and many were not in favour of Italian participation in the war. All Italian army activities were seriously affected by geographical distributions within the continent and overseas in Africa, by the primary importance of naval and air action in the Mediterranean sea, and basic limitations on modern supplies made available from an apparently reduced and disorganized Industrial capacity. Russia. The Russian armies were engaged in major offensive action with the German armies during the period June to Dec. 1941. The Russian the- ory of combat has been based upon a strong defense of the land frontiers Of the far-flung soviet union with emphasis upon air and ground action and with naval strength considered a secondary part of the national defense. Early indications of Russian army organization, noted during the Finnish campaigns ahd during the westward expansion of the Russian state during 1939 and prior to the German attacks in 1941. suggested that numerically Russia was strong in manpower and in machines. However, the conduct of operations In those periods indicated many faults in the leadership and organization of this strength for use in battle. The first six months of war- fare against Germany showed a change in Russian strength and in the con* duct of operations. Without launching a large co-ordinated land and air attack, Russian armies fought brilliant delaying actions and adopted dag- ger-thrust attacks of limited extent in ground distance, but of serious coun- ter-effect against German columns until the start of full-scale offensives In mid-December. Siege operations at Leningrad and Odessa and later at Mos- cow indicate a complete organization of both armed services and civilian ARMIES OF THE WORLD 75 population for land defense, Russian tactical doctrine appears to include strong resistance in depth coupled with stubborn delaying action in all cases, frequently including adoption of minor siege operations where large forces were surrounded by the opposition. In equipment the Russian armies appear to have considerable numbers of all classes of vehicles and weapons. Some doubt appears to exist as to the efficiency of this equipment as much of it seems to be below the standard of modern design. Maintenance of mechanized equipment appears adequate wherever relatively stable condi- tions of warfare permit. In the air, Russian operations have given indica- tions of larger air forces than expected. The campaign has produced no un- usual characteristics of Russian organization or doctrine except the success achieved in delaying actions and the extent of losses inflicted on German air and ground forces. The operations in the closing weeks of 1941 indi- cate an adherence by the Russians to their old tactical conception of weak- ening an enemy through attrition, weather and length of supply lines, when counteroffensives for decisive results are undertaken. The offensive was undertaken in the southern area near Rostov and the Moscow front at the close of the year. Summary- The Russian armies, engaged in full-scale operations along an extensive land front, fought brilliant defensive actions both in the air and on the ground. After the initial onrush of the Germans, they seemed to regain cohesion and adopt co-ordinated offensive action. Local defense actions, principally the defense of cities, indicated a high degree of perfec- tion in artillery and infantry organizations. Except for the offensive action undertaken in the southern and Moscow theatres late in December little opportunity was afforded observers to examine Russian tactical doctrine. Equipment at the beginning of the war appeared satisfactory. Large de- mands were made on American industry to meet Russian calls for assistance in securing replacements of all classes. All Russian army activities were affected by the successful extension of industrial capacity from western a.reas to the Ural mountain districts; the increase in British and United States assistance; the continuation of German attacks despite heavy losses; and the developments in the far east. Only limited observations were avail- able by report due to the small number of foreign observers given access to records, the extent of the area involved and the necessary limitations im- posed by censorship. Japan. The Japanese armies extended the area of operations during 1941 by moving to the south into Indo-China, and by the joint army and navy operations undertaken in December against the United States and Great Britain in the far east and the Pacific. The Japanese theory of combat has been offensive, dependent upon the home islands as a base of operations sup- porting joint naval and land action in Asia. In practice the Japanese armies have been engaged principally on the continent against large but relatively unorganized and poorly equipped Chinese forces. Japanese organization parallels the modern army types, modified to suit the requirements of ter- rain and opposition encountered in China, and the limited Japanese raw materials. Some success has been accomplished against organized Chinese forces and fortified Chinese positions. At all times Japanese forces appeared less effective against unorganized Chinese guerrilla attacks. Japanese opera- tions in the air appear to be extensive against weak opposition from enemy air and ground defenses. All Japanese army operations were mainly de- pendent upon the maintenance of sea-borne supplies and the continued in- crease of national industrial capacity. The naval fleet and air operations, particularly in the closing weeks of 1941 which marked the opening of ma- jor warfare against the United States and Great Britain, overshadowed the army operations. However, extensive army attacks were developing against the Philippine Islands, Singapore and Hongkong, which fell on Dec. 25. Summary. It appears that the Japanese armies are fairly well equipped with modern machinery and capable of maintaining more than 2,000,000 experienced soldiers in the field. During the prolongation of the combat operations in China, large numbers of Japanese units -have received actual battlefield experience. AH army operations have been characterized by the type of Chinese resistance which appears to have been for the most part unorganized and of the guerrilla rather than modern field army form. No decisive land actions have resulted from Japanese army operations. Con- siderable co-ordination has resulted from joint naval and army actions, and extensive experience has been gained from air activities against weak re- sistance. The limited period of Japanese operations during the closing weeks of 1941 indicated more naval and air activity than army activity, although landings were made against Hongkong and in the Philippines and on the Malayan peninsula by ground forces. Limitations of censorship and the brief period covered by these operations preclude extensive analysis of Japa- nese army characteristics. China. The Chinese forces were engaged in major warfare with Japa- nese armies throughout 1941. Chinese armed forces were estimated at about 5,000,000 including unorganized but effective guerrilla groups. Wherever stable, organized units existed, the Chinese army resembled the modern field armies, but were short of modern equipment. In all cases, the glaring shortages of modern equipment rendered ineffective any large-scale attempts to engage in full-size tactical operations. Limited offensives were under- taken with frequent spectacular success wherever equipment and training permitted. For the most part, air operations were unco-ordinated with ground operations and were limited to harassing bombing activities. The Chinese theory of combat is entirely defensive in character. The initiation of offensive tactics in all case* depended upon supplies of all classes, the training of guerrilla groups tor joint action within larger organized field forces, and the gradual extension of a national understanding of the need for and support of a major co-ordinated effort against the invader. Summary. Limited offensive actions were undertaken by relatively small but determined forces. Industrial capacity was low and imports limited to supplies received over the Burma road. All army operations were af- fected by the extent of the area involved, the delay in creating a national effort, and the extension of the war outside the Chinese mainland. Japan was unable to secure decisive results against Chinese forces. United State* During 1941 the United States continued large-scale ma- noeuvre training programs within continental limits, increased the strength and defenses of newly acquired bases and existing overseas garrisons, and approached the close of the year with a greatly improved and considerably larger army than the nation had ever known in times of peace. On Dec. 7. 1941, Japan launched surprise attacks on Pacific garrisons and declared war on the United States. On Dec. n, 1941, Germany and Italy declared war on the United States. These events, followed by prompt U.S. declara- tions and the extension of military service to the close of hostilities, empha- sized not only the results attained to date but the serious duties facing the army in the future. The theory of combat of the United States army has always been offensive. Foreign- wars have always been fought by joint naval and land operations based upon a strong home front furnishing re- quired replacements of men and supplies. Overseas garrisons have always been reduced to a minimum strength frequently considered far below po- tential needs. During times of peace, and particularly following World War I, the natural desire of a civilized state to abjure war and refrain from hostilities resulted in a drastic reduction in numbers and severe limi- tations on training and adequate procurement of modern supplies for even a small force. The rise of dictatorships and the spread of World War II resulted in an increase in strength, principally by means of a draft. As the tempo of war increased, the United States turned to the production of war supplies for the armies opposed to Germany, Italy and Japan, and in turn to meet the expanding needs of its own army. The year 1941 was marked particularly by the organization and transportation of modern units to defend outlying bases and possessions, by the completion of large-scale field army ma- noeuvres, by advancing the organization of large army units, and by the organization of a vast production plant. (See also DEFENSE, NATIONAL [U.S.]: Armed Forces.) Organization. The United States armies are organized as field forces for administration and training within the continental limits, and as task force garrisons within outlying bases and possessions. The air forces remain as parts of both the army and the navy and do not constitute an independent army, but within the army have virtually an independent status. In 1941 the creation of higher staffs and the organization of field army and army corps troops and higher air force echelons developed concur- rently with the expansion in numbers of ground divisions, air and other units. The outstanding development in these respects was the separation of tactical field forces under a general headquarters (GHQ) from the terri- torial administration and supply activities within nine geographical areas. At the close of the year, these changes had proved to be desirable and rapid advances had been made in the conduct of training and the gradual crea- tion of large-sized field army fighting teams. All developments within these armies were subject to the gradual acquisition of adequate modern equip- ment. In general, the training program progressed at a rate permitting all ranks to be prepared to use the new equipment as rapidly as it was re- ceived. Some shortages existed at the close of the year and some elements of training, notably combat firing, had been delayed due to these shortages. At the close of 1941, faced with war against three nations in Europe and the far east, the United States army was far beiter prepared for action than it had been when it entered World War I in April 1917. Tactical Doctrine. The experience gained in World War I plus devel- opment and utilization of modern armament had created within the field army command the basic elements of modern battlefield tactics demon- strated by nazi forces since Sept. 1939, but formulated to suit American characteristics. This doctrine included the close co-ordination of combat aviation with ground forces; the maximum development of battlefield mo- bility as well as strategic mobility; the rapid advance of striking forces to create gaps at weak spots; followed by the eventual encirclement and de- struction of the opposition. While the forces comprised infantry and cav- alry divisions, armoured divisions and air forces, the doctrine contemplated a close integration of all these branches; at the same time making the air forces available for independent action. Factors beyond military control resulted in postponement of such organ- ization or training until 1941. During this year, the gradual increase in manpower and the increasing supplies of modern machinery permitted the resumption of original plans for reorganization and large-scale training pro- grams. Armoured divisions were organized and some motorized divisions were created. Ground infantry divisions were reduced in size (triangular) within the regular army, and a start was made in similar reorganization with national ^.uard (square) divisions. The air forces were grouped into higher commands, each comprising a bombing command, interceptor com- mand and an air ground support command. An outstanding development, resulting from the final army manoeuvres completed in November, was the success achieved in the use of small, highly mobile "tank attacker" units in offensives against armoured and mechanized attacks. These units, improvised for the particular manoeuvres, consisted of 50 calibre, 37-mm. and 75-mm. weapons mounted for direct fire from protected self-propelled mounts, motorized infantry, combat engineers, light reconnaissance elements and small, included, combat and observation avia- tion. This introduction of "tank attacker" units; the development of ac- companying air support units; the extension of mobile reconnaissance agen- cies; the organization of ground and air warning units; and the perfection of supply services, all under a single commander, were marked improve- ments in tactical development within a field army. Summary. The United States army numbered approximately 1,800,000 at the close of 1941. Extensive problems remained unsolved in the procure- ment of officer personnel; the rapid reorganization of required tactical field forces; the acquisition of adequate modern equipment; the continued ex- pansion of enlisted replacements; the perfection of air-ground co-ordina- tion; the organization of armoured forces and expansion of anti-tank and anti-mechanized units; and the acceptance of a system of unified command for combat forces including all elements of the armoured services and de- signed to accomplish specific combat missions. The national support nec- essary to meet all these requirements was crystallized and guaranteed by the declarations of war made by Germany, Italy and Japan in Dec. 1941. The broad outlines of the combat phase ahead indicated extensive Joint naval and land operations with increased importance for all strategic and tactical air operations. The year 1941 closed with an aroused and powerful nation rapidly pre- paring to organize, equip, train and lead in combat the most powerful armed force the world has ever known. The actual operations daring the last weeks of the year were limited in scope and the details shrouded in 76 ARMOUR, A. V.. the necessary safeguards of wartime censorship. Other Armies of the World. After 28 months of warfare, the armies of ihe following countries disappeared as organized independent forces, either us a result of defeat in battle or due to change in national political associa- tion with axis powers: Albania, Belgium, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, Es- tonia, Latvia, Lithuania, France, Holland, Denmark, Norway, Hungary, Rumania, Greece, Poland, Yugoslavia. NO information had become avail- able of the size and composition of armies absorbed within the German system. Finland was considered allied to Germany. Whenever small forces escaped to join governments in exile the nucleus of a new army had been formed and joined the Allies. Nations so repre- sented included: Holland in the Dutch East Indies, Free France in Africa, Poland, Norway, Belgium, Czechoslovakia and Greece. These forces varied from a few patriots to forces small in size but well organized and partly equipped. r For a complete list of the nations allied against Germany and of those allied with Germany, see table on page 731, in WORLD WAR II. Neutral states as of Jan. i, 1942, included the following: Argentina, Bra- zil, Chile, Ecuador, Mexico, Paraguay, Peru, Portugal, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey and Venezuela. Conclusion. The spread of World War II brought nearly all of the or- ganized armies of the world into conflict at the close of 1941. Table 111 on page 71 indicates the nations engaged and the size of armies participating in warfare. (See also AIR FORCES OF THE WORLD; CHEMICAL WARFARE; MARINE CORPS; MUNITIONS OF WAR; NATIONAL GUARD; NAVIES OF THE WORLD; WORLD WAR II.) (H. A. DR.) r Allknn Vinnpnt C' 86 *- 1 ^), u.s. yachtsman r, AIIIMJII VllllClll and specialist in plant and ar- chaeological research, was born March 18 in Chicago. Sponsored by the department of agriculture, he made eight voyages aboard his yacht to remote regions for plant and biological research. In 1932, on a trip to the West Indies, he collected rare plants and vegetables which might be introduced into southeastern U.S., and he also made important archaeological discoveries on the islands. In 1931 Armour received the Frank M. Meyer medal, awarded by the American Genetic association for plant exploration. He was an honorary fellow of the New York Academy of Sciences. Armour died in New York city, March 6. ART EXHIBITIONS Arnnlrl Uonrv H (l886 ~ } us army officer ' was MIIIUIU, nCllljf II. born June 25 in Gladwyn, Pa. He was graduated from West Point in 1907 and served in the Philippines until 1909. He set an altitude record in 1912, was awarded the Mackay trophy for a reconnaissance flight in the same year and was the first aviator to use radio in reporting artillery fire ob- served from a plane. During World War I, he headed the infor- mation service of the signal corps's aviation division and later became assistant director of military aeronautics. Gen. Arnold led a round-trip flight of army bombers to Alaska in 1934 and was awarded the distinguished flying cross in the same year. He was named assistant chief of the air corps, 1935, and major gen- eral, chief of the air corps, 1938. In Oct. 1940, he became the nation's first acting deputy chief of staff in charge of co-ordinat- ing all matters pertaining to the air corps. In May 1941 Pres. Roosevelt made him a full-fledged deputy chief of staff. He went to England in the spring of 1941 to exchange technical ideas with British air experts and on Dec. 15, 1941, Pres. Roose- velt named Arnold for temporary promotion to the rank of lieu- tenant general. Arnault! De La Periere, Lothar Von admiral, was born March 18 in Posen, Germany. The son of a former government official in Potsdam, and a descendant of a French immigrant who became a major general in the army of Frederick the Great, the young Arnauld de la Periere received his early training in cadet schools and at the age of 17 entered the imperial navy. In 1906 he became an officer and from 1913 to 1915 he was adjutant to the chief of staff. From 1915 to 1918 he was commander of two U-boats in the Mediterranean. Germany claimed that he was responsible for the sinking of 200 Allied ships totalling more than 500,000 tons during World War I. Named commander of the German naval forces in occupied France in 1940, he was killed Feb. 24 in an accident, the details of which were not divulged by German authorities. Arsenic. Art Exhibitions. World consumption of commercial arsenic that is, the white oxide, and not the metal itself is of the order of 60,000 metric tons annually, about one-third of which is produced in the United States; other producers of importance are Sweden, Mexico, Australia, Belgium, Germany and Japan. The United States is the largest consumer, taking about half of the total. The 1940 output increased to 24,983 short tons, and sales to 23,339 tons, which was supplemented by 9,929 tons of imports, less 1,600 tons exported, leaving a total supply of 31,700 tons. Both exports and imports decreased about half. Sweden alone recovers enough crude arsenic to supply the entire world demand, but only a small fraction of it is refined and used, the surplus being held in storage, this having been found to be the cheapest way to dispose of the heavy arsenic content of the Boli- den gold ores, even though transportation charges and cheap sup- plies in other countries prevent its shipment and use. (G. A. Ro.) Arf: see AMERICAN LITERATURE; ARCHITECTURE; PAINTING; SCULPTURE; etc. The war necessarily confined most exhibi- tions to the western hemisphere, where surveys of the art of a people or period proved popular. Spanish Painting was shown at the Toledo Museum of Art and Paganism and Christianity in Egypt at the Brooklyn museum. Baroque Italian Painting was reviewed at San Francisco's California Palace of the Legion of Honor and In- dian Art of the United States was featured at New York's Museum of Modern Art. Aus- tralian Art began a tour of the United States with a first show- ing at the National gallery, Washington, D.C. The Metro- politan Museum of Art and the Art Institute of Chicago ex- hibited French paintings and drawings lent by the museums and collectors of France. The influence of world affairs was THE NATIONAL GALLERY OF ART at Washington, D.C., gift of Andrew Mellon, was dedicated March 17, 1941 by President Roosevelt ART GALLERIES AND ART MUSEUMS 77 evident not only in the prominence given Australian art but also in the display of Modern Mexican Painters at the Boston Insti- tute of Modern Art and in the special section devoted to Mexico and Latin America in the Art Institute of Chicago's Twentieth International Exhibition of Water Colors. A national tour of Latin-American prints was sponsored by the International Busi- ness Machines corporation, which also backed the collection of contemporary art of the western hemisphere seen throughout North America. Three exhibitions of North American art circu- lated in Latin America as a result of the co-operation of the official Pan-American cultural relations committee and a group of American museums. America and Americans came to the fore in such exhibits as the new Santa Barbara museum's Painting Today and Yesterday in the United States, the Whitney museum's This Is Our City, the Baltimore Museum of Art's A Century of Balti- more Collecting. Fifty Oncoming Americans were on view at the Springfield Museum of Fine Arts and at the Boston Institute of Modern Art. Outstanding among the annuals and biennials were the Art Institute of Chicago's Fifty-second Annual Exhibition of American Paintings and Sculpture, for the first time chosen en- tirely by the museum, the Carnegie Institute of Pittsburgh's Di- rections in American Painting, which gave a chance to those Americans who had never shown in its International, and the Syracuse Museum of Fine Arts' tenth exhibition of ceramics, which for the first time included work from all the Americas. The most noteworthy exhibitions in 1941 devoted to the art of one man were the Art Institute of Chicago's superb Art of Goya Paintings, Drawings, and Prints; and Duveen's review of Renoir. Other interesting one-man shows, featuring the work of iQth or 20th century artists, included Faggi at the Albright Art gallery in Buffalo, Max Weber at the Associated American Artists, Iver Rose and Louis Bosa at the Schneider-Gabriel galleries, Nordfeldt at Lilienfeld's, Esther Williams at Kraushaar's, Robert Gwathmey at the A.C.A. gallery, Speicher at the Rehn galleries. Mary Cassatt was shown at the Baltimore Museum of Art, Man- gravite at the Art Institute of Chicago, Jerome Myers at the Whitney, Joan Miro and Salvador Dali at the Museum of Modern Art. The late Emil Ganso was on view at the Whitney, at the Philadelphia Art Alliance and at Weyhe's. Sepeshy was seen at the Midtown, Souto at Knoedler's, Mario Carreno at the Perls gallery, and George Grosz both at the Walker galleries and the Museum of Modern Art. Old masters featured included El Greco at Knoedler's and Joos De Momper at Mortimer Brandt's. Among the most unusual exhibitions of the year were the fol- lowing: the Metropolitan's China Trade and Its Influences; Knoedler's show in honour of Cortissoz's 50th year as an art critic; Italian Drawings, 1330-1780, at the Smith College Museum of Art; prints and books published by Vollard at the Brooklyn museum; the First Century of Printmaking at the Art Institute of Chicago. (D. 0.) Art Galleries and Art Museums. in art galleries and museums. In England 1941 opened with some of the heaviest bombings of London in which priceless monu- ments and churches were destroyed by the enemy, including the famous auction rooms of Christie's. On March 17 the United States sounded a note of hope and gave refuge to unique works of European art with the opening of the National gallery in Wash- ington. On Dec. 7 with Japan's attack on the United States, decades of progressive art collecting changed direction, and cura- tors* plans were revised overnight from that of solely acquiring works of art to protecting them also from bombs. Following the example of England, museum directors emphasized the importance of art in wartime, as air raids of the kind that would be attempted in the United States would be directed not so much at killing peo- ple or destroying military objectives as at crushing morale. In England more books were printed than ever before, and art maga- zines came out regularly even wherf bombed out of their offices. Certainly the most important event of 1941 was the opening of the National Gallery of Art in Washington, D.C., on March 17, when President Roosevelt accepted the gifts of the late Andrew J. Mellon and Samuel H. Kress and others for the nation. The late Andrew J. Mellon gave the building with an endowment and bequeathed 122 outstanding European paintings and 23 pieces of sculpture of the finest European schools. Samuel H. Kress donated 375 paintings and 18 pieces of sculpture of notable quality. By July 27, four months after the opening, the mil- lionth visitor had entered the museum. The summation of losses from enemy bombs to museums and contents in Europe during 1941 served two purposes: first, to make all realize the extent to which axis dictators will go in destroying civilian property which has no military value what- ever; and secondly, to demonstrate the disadvantages of anti- quated museum architecture in coping with the problems of life today. The extent of the damage to the superb early Greek ob- jects in the museum at Candia, Crete, had not been published up to Jan. i, 1942. Irreparable injury was caused in London when (on the night of Dec. 19, 1940) the enemy dropped 10,000 incen- diary bombs on the city, destroying nine churches, among them Wren's St. Lawrence Jewry, St. Vedast and St. Bride's. The Guildhall, built in 1411-35, was burned down to the walls. Sta- tioner's hall (built 1670) was devastated with a loss of 5,000,- ooo books. Grave damage was done to Trinity house and to Dr. Johnson's house in Gough street. The Inns of Court were in ruins. Similar damage was done in Liverpool, where the City museum was destroyed by fire while the Walker gallery had a narrow es- cape. In May the Portsmouth City museum was demolished. The Bristol museum had already met a like fate. The Southampton Art gallery was badly damaged when a bomb crashed into a shel- ter full of children. The Bootle Museum and Art gallery, the Sunderland Public Museum and Art gallery, the Williamson Art Gallery and Museum in Birkcnhead, the Birmingham City Muse- um and Art gallery, and the Coventry museum all suffered severe damage. In Hull, Old Time street with its series of original store fronts was completely demolished. The Museums and War Dam- age act was set' up to insure museums against losses. Reports from France stated that the Louvre, the Trocadero and the Luxembourg museum had not been stripped by the nazis but were left partially open to the public for their value as im- portant tourist attractions after the war. However, important Jewish collections were confiscated and many of them were on view in the Jeu de Paume museum, where they were being sold for relief funds, for example the i7th and i9th century art and the 1 8th century paintings, and the silver collection of Maurice de Rothschild. Everywhere pictures were in great demand for in- vestment purposes, as they were easy to transport and their value remained constant. The Jewish-owned galleries were open and doing a good business (under the direction of the enemy). In the United States the public enjoyed displays of refugee art from Europe: the masterpieces of French art from David to Picasso, lent by the Louvre and museums of France, were shown exactly as they left France (before the war) only at the Art Insti- tute of Chicago. Several prominent refugee artists came to the United States and enriched its culture : Leger, Kisling, Ozenfant, Berman, Mondrian, Masson and Chagall, and the sculptors Zad- kine and Lipschitz. Exhibitions of paintings and of books were sent on tour to the Central and South American republics in an effort to promote better inter-American relations. Several mu- 78 ARTHRITISASBESTOS seums abolished pay days: the Metropolitan museum in New York and the Cleveland museum, The following were among the im- portant gifts of the year to museums : Mrs. James Ward Thorne of Chicago presented 97 of her architectural models in miniature to the Art Institute of Chicago to be used for educational pur- poses. The Boston Museum of Fine Arts received the significant Karolik gift of furniture and arts and crafts of the i8th century in the colonies and original states. Yale university acquired an un- usual bequest of 450 works of modern art from Katherine S. Dreier. In March, Robert Moses, the New York commissioner of parks, issued a detailed statement stressing what was wrong with New York museums and how they were not relating themselves to the public. In July, William Church Osborn was chosen president of the Metropolitan Museum of Art to succeed the late George Blumenthal, who made significant gifts to the museum in his will. The Metropolitan added a junior museum consisting of a restau- rant, workrooms and galleries for children. New York department stores sold works of art from the Hearst, the Clarence Mackay and the W. S. McCall collections. Various exhibits demonstrated the national importance of the art of the American Negro. The new Santa Barbara museum opened in California. (L. B. BR.) Arthritis. Approximately one-fourth of all patients with chronic arthritis fail to become re-employable due solely to the severity of their disease. The permanent invalidity, however, is a subject which deserves further study. Judging from a review of the effect of the bombing of London on patients with "rheumatism," the added exposure and shock seems to have resulted in some increase in the amount of the disease; individual patients, however, have adjusted themselves well as a rule. Several studies on the blood chemistry of patients with rheu- matoid arthritis failed to demonstrate any significant differences from normal, except in the case of the so-called formol-gel reac- tion in the blood plasma, which has been found reasonably suit- able as an index of the extent of systemic activity of the disease process. In this respect, it is similar to the blood sedimentation reaction. Ordinarily, chronic infectious or rheumatoid arthritis has not been considered as a disease which affects the heart. However, heart lesions have been demonstrated at necropsy in four-fifths of a small group of patients with rheumatoid arthritis. Further studies of the spontaneous polyarthritis of rats, dis- covered some years before as having a marked similarity to human arthritis, resulted in one report, implying that two strains of the pleuropneumonia group, one obtained from rats and the other from a patient with acute rheumatic fever, were identical. In connection with the effect of jaundice on arthritis, Snow and Hines found that ligation of the common bile duct of rats prior to or shortly after injection of a culture of a pleuropneumonia- like organism would delay the onset of arthritis and the subse- quent degree of joint involvement was diminished. This is an ad- ditional element of similarity to the human disease. Using an en- tirely different type of organism the haemolytic streptococcus Rothbard produced an acute multiple arthritis in 45 out of 51 albino rats by the intravenous injection of a strain of this organ- ism. Numerous additional studies on the role of gold salts in the treatment of arthritis appeared ; one of them was reported as an effective chemotherapeutic agent for a variety of haemolytic streptococcus arthritis in rats. Certain gold compounds also were found to exert a curative effect on experimental arthritis pro- duced in mice by a filtrable micro-organism of the pleuropneu- monia group. Several groups of investigators, especially in the United States and Great Britain, reported favourable results with certain gold salts in the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis. All however stressed the toxic effects and cautioned against the dangers. The council on pharmacy and chemistry of the Amer- ican Medical association took a conservative attitude toward the use of gold salts for this purpose. Considerable work was done on the prevention of deformities in arthritis and on reconstructive surgery of joints which had been already badly damaged. The results of repair in some cases were little short of phenomenal. BIBLIOGRAPHY. B. I. Comroe, Arthritis and Allied Conditions; R. H. Freyberg, W. D. Block and S. Levey, "Metabolism, Toxicity and Manner of Action of Gold Compounds Used in the Treatment of Arthritis. I. Hu- man Plasma and Synovial Fluid Concentration and Urinary Excretion of Gold During and Following Treatment with Gold Sodium Thiomalate, Gold Sodium Thiosulfate, and Colloidal Gold Sulfide," /. Clin. Investigation, 20:401-412 (1941); Philip S. Hench, ct al., "The Problem of Rheumatism and Arthritis, Review of American and English Literature for 1939 (Sev- enth Rheumatism Review)," Ann. Int. Med., 14:1383-1448 and 1631- 1701 (1941); "Proceedings of the American Rheumatism Association," J.A.M.A., 117:1560-66 and 1646-50 (1941). (E. P. J.) Artillery: see ARMIES OF THE WORLD; MUNITIONS OF WAR; WORLD WAR II. Art Qoloo ^ e war * n l ^ 1 st * mu ^ ate( ^ ra th er than depressed fill OdlCO. the auction market. In New York, Parke-Bernet's gross sales were $3,606,381, an increase of 54% over the previous year and the biggest total since 1929. The sale of the Mrs. Henry Walters collection was the high spot of the season, bringing a total of $646,684. Important prices realized were $12,500 for Clodion's "Nymph and Satyr" and $16,500 for Boucher's "Le Moulin" and "Le Cours d'Eau." Although the Walters collection was famous for its i8th century French art, the sale's sensation occurred when a Persian silver-woven silk rug was started at $1,000 and climbed steadily to $16,000, the price paid by Miss Berenice C. Ballard of St. Louis. Nearly $500,000 in two days is the record of the sale of the Mrs. B. F. Jones, Jr., collection. Romney's "Captain William Kirkpatrick" went for $31,000 and Romney's "Miss Frances Berresford" for $39,000. A Hobbema landscape brought $30,000, a Nattier $19,500, a Gainsborough rustic scene $16.000, and Turner's "Fish Market on the Sands" was secured by Billy Rose for $15,500. Art property from the estate of the late J. Horace Harding aggregated $183,152. At this sale the record price of the year was reached by Goya's "Victor Guye," for which an anonymous collector paid $34,000. The Plaza Art galleries announced a total of $1,178,789, the result of 6 1 sales, in the 1940-41 season. In England the normal activities of the great salesrooms of Sotheby's and Christie's continued and even took on new interest and importance. On April 17 the famous Great Rooms of Chris- tie's were bombed and destroyed, but by May the firm was in- stalled in temporary quarters in Derby house, Stratford place. The jewels which had awaited sale in a safe survived the ordeal of fire and produced a total of 17,700 when sold at Derby house. One of the most successful silver sales was that of the late Sir Lionel Faudel-Phillips' collection. A total of 43,86i was realized by 305 lots. A total of 32,408 was recorded at Christie's in July when gems came under the hammer. From an anonymous source a superb diamond pendant found a buyer at 9,500. At Sotheby's sale of the late H. K. Burnet's Chinese collection 405 lots ob- tained 6,131 135. An early Chou wine vessel was knocked down for 230. Sotheby's in conjunction with Lofts and Warner sold the H. Yates Thompson collection, which achieved a total of 11,504 igs. (D. 0.) Arts and Sctatcfti, American Aeodtmy of: see AMERI- CAN ACADEMY OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. Following are the salient data of the asbestos in- dustry in the United States in 1940: production 19,174 short tons, sales 20,060 tons, imports 246,613 tons, exports ASBESTOS! S ASTRONOMY 79 4,474 tons, available supply 262,199 tons; all figures are in- creases over preceding years. More than half of the world sup- ply comes from Canada, where 1940 sales declined slightly to 345,581 tons. Second in importance is Southern Rhodesia, with 58,313 tons in 1939 and 1940 not reported. South Africa pro- duced 27,392 tons in 1940 and exported 22,187 tons. Production was begun in Swaziland in 1939; no figures were available for the year, but output during the first seven months of 1940 was at the rate of nearly 2,000 tons monthly. Nothing was reported from Cyprus after the first quarter of 1940, and operations were prob- ably discontinued. (G. A, Ro.) Asbestosis: see SILICOSIS. ASCAP: see PERFORMING RIGHT SOCIETIES; RADIO: Literary- Musical Property. Ascension: see BRITISH WEST AFRICA. Asia: see AFGHANISTAN; CHINA; INDIA, ETC. , Acnholt United States production of asphalt includes only no|Jlldll. comparatively small amounts of the native varieties (32,000 short tons in 1940, against 37,360 tons in 1939). The production of bituminous rock rose from 422,484 tons in 1939 to 458,665 tons in 1940; this has an asphalt content of about 10%, and so accounts for a somewhat larger amount of asphalt produc- tion. Of far greater magnitude is the output of manufactured asphalt, which was recovered in the refining of petroleum to the extent of 5,069,823 tons from domestic and 1,289,132 tons from imported petroleum in 1940. There are moderate imports of both native and manufactured varieties, but these are more than offset by exports, especially of petroleum asphalt. Trinidad is the world's largest producer of native asphalt, with an output of 130,315 long tons in 1939, but exports have declined nearly one-half since 1929, due largely to competition from petro- leum asphalt. Egypt produces about the same amount as the U.S., and there are a number of minor producers. (G. A. Ro.) ftccaccinatinnc The assassinations of ^i, actual or at- noodoolllduUIIO. tempted, included the following: March 1 1 Istanbul, Turkey. Time bombs hidden in suitcases exploded as British minister to Bulgaria, (ieorge \V. Rendel, and his party of 67 entered hotel; Rendei escaped injury, but six of his entourage were killed and 17 injured. May 24 Tirana, Albania. A Greek poet attempted to assassinate King Victor Emmanuel and Albanian Premier Shevket Verlaci during the former's visit to Tirana; the (ireek fired several times into the king's motor car, but all his shots missed, July 26 Near Montelimar, France. Marx Dormoy, former socialist leader and interior minister in the 1'opular Front cabinet of prewar France, was killed by a time bomb left by unknown persons in his hotel room. Aug. 14 Tokyo. Baron KiichiroHiranuma, Japanese vice-premier, was shot in the neck and jaw by a 33 year-old assassin who forced his way into the baron's residence in Tokyo; the assailant was apprehended by the police. Aug. 27 Versailles, France. Pierre Laval, former French premier, and Marcel Dtfat, pro-nazi editor, were shot and seriously wounded by Paul Colette, a young Frenchman, while they were reviewing a French ant i -communist legion in a Versailles barracks. Sept. 5 Paris, France. Marcel Gilt on, French ex communist leader and former deputy, died of injuries inflicted Sept, 4 by unidentified assailant. Nov. 9 Baghdad, Iraq. Fakhri Bey Nashashibi, Arab leader and Head of Defense party, was assassinated as he was leaving his hotel. Association for the Advancement of Science, Ameri- can: see AMERICAN ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE. Aetrnnnitllf nOUUIiUlllj. PAUL COLETTE (centre) being held by French gendarmes Immediately after hit attempted aitaislnatlon of Pierre Laval and Marcel Deat Aug. 27, 1941 at Versailles ^ m P rtancc f lne Schmidt-type telescope as a new tool in astronomical research is empha- sized by the number of these instruments placed in use or under construction during 1941. Two 24-in, Schmidt telescopes were in- stalled in the United States, while two larger instruments were soon to be installed, one in the United States and one in South Africa. Solar System. The Sun, One of the great unsolved problems concerning the solar spectrum has been the identity of the lines in the spectrum of the corona. It has been known that these lines, 22 of which have been meas- ured by Lyot, could not be due to any unknown chemical element but must arise from well known elements under unusual conditions. Edlen, in the course of systematic studies of the spectra of highly ionized atoms, has succeeded in identifying 15 of these lines. Two of the lines are due to highly ionized atoms of calcium, seven are due to highly ionized iron and six to highly ionized nickel. The seven lines which remained unidentified in 1941 are all faint, the 15 identified lines contributing approximately 97% of the total radiation from the corona. Several of these identified lines have not as >ec been observed in the laboratory, but enough was known about the highly ionized states of these atoms to make Edlen's predictions reasonably certain. The variation of brightness over the solar disk from the centre to near the limb has been accurately measured, but unsteadiness of the image, due to the effect of the earth's atmosphere, makes such measurement difficult very close to the limb. The best means of escaping this difficulty is to measure the brightness of the crescent phases of a total solar eclipse. Ferwerda, Uitterdijk and Wesselink succeeded in doing this at the Russian eclipse of 1936 by an ingenious photographic method. Their results, pub- lished in 1941, indicate that the brightness near the sun's limb varies ap- proximately as the tenth root of the distance from the limb, whereas the brightness nearer the centre of the disk varies as the cube root of this dis- tance. Simultam jus measures of colour show that even during the last minute before totality, when the light was only i/ioo its initial value, there was no change of colour. This constancy of colour suggests that there must be a nearly isothermal layer near the solar surface. Similar results have been arrived at in different ways by Plaskett and by Miss Adam. 1'lanetory System. Six comets were discovered during 1941. Two of these were rediscoveries of previously known comets, the others being new objects, one of which was readily visible to the naked eye in the southern hemisphere. One of the great co-operative observational programs instituted by the International Astronomical union was the program for observing Eros at the opposition of 1931. At this opposition Eros was only 16,000,000 mi. from the earth, and this close proximity of Eros made it an especially favourable object to observe for the purpose of determining a new value of the solar parallax. Jones announced the results of his analysis of thousands of observations made at more than 30 co-operating observatories. After systematic errors of some of the observatories had been allowed for, he ob- tained the following values for ihe solar parallax: from all right ascension observations, 8".7875o".ooo9, and from all declination observations, 8".7907o".ooii. He concluded that the solar parallax must be very close to the value 8". 790. This material also yielded a new value of the mass of the moon. By using the value 8".790o".ooi for the sun's parallax, Jones obtained for the ratio of the mass of the earth to that of the moon the value 8 1.2 71 0.021, A comparison of Newcomb's theory of the motion of Neptune with all observations from 1795 to 1938 has been made by Wylie. After reducing all positions to a homogeneous system he obtained corrections to the orbital elements of Neptune which have gratifyingly small probable errors. A by- product of this investigation is a new determination of the mass of Pluto, which Wylie found to be (o.3ooo.028)X io~ 5 sun's mass. The mass of the earth is o.3oixio~ 5 sun's mass. Pluto, therefore, appears to have a AURORA BOREALIS outshone the brilliance of New York city's lights on the night of Sept. 18, 1941. The display was visible throughout much of the northern U.S.A. mass practically identical with that of the earth. Observations of the satellite of Neptune by Alden yielded a new value of the mass of this satellite. Alden finds that the ratio of the mass of the satellite to the mass of the system is 0.0013^0.0003. Since the mass of Neptune is about 17 times that of the earth this figure makes the mass of Neptune's satellite 0.022 the earth's mass, or i.H limes the mass of the moon. Stars. Special Stars and Stellar Structure. In a study of the atmos- pheric structure of Zeta Aurigae, Roach combined his own photoelectric observations with those previously made by Guthnick and by Kron. After adjusting all observations to the same effective wave length, he found that they could best be represented on the assumption that the eclipse is due entirely to absorption of light of the 1> star by the extensive atmosphere of the K star. An estimate of the number of hydrogen atoms in the line of sight, based on observed intensities of the hydrogen lines in the spectrum, agrees well with the extinction theory of the eclipse. One of the most interesting and puzzling of the eclipsing binaries is the third magnitude star Beta Lyrae. Thousands of photometric and spectro- graphic observations of this star have been made in an attempt to solve the puzzling problems it presents. A concerted attack on the problem by a number of astronomers seems to have pretty well solved the puzzle. Kopal and Kuiper treated the problem from the theoretical standpoint and Struve, (jreenstein, Page and Miss Gill contributed spectrographic investigations. Notable among these are the discussions of Kuiper and Struve. Beta Lyrae consists of two highly elliptical stars which revolve about their common centre of gravity. Kuiper's mathematical analysis, when combined with Struve's spectrographic results, indicates that the two components of this binary system are so nearly in contact as they revolve about each other that their atmospheres merge. Because of different densities, the attraction of the more dense star on pnrticles between the two will tend to set up a current in their atmospheres. Much of this moving gas will continue to circulate about the two stars, but some of it will escape and form a great spiral of gas about the stars which will take the form of a disk of material lying in the plane of the orbit. The plane of the orbit must be almost edge- wise toward us so that the gas in this spiral will come between us and the stars. This is a remarkable model of a celestial object, but it depends on careful dynamical calculations and on a thorough study of the spectra. It explains almost all of the hitherto puzzling features of this system, com- bining ihe perplexing observational facts into a consistent and intelligible picture. Observational investigations of Cepheids and cluster-type variables by Fath and by Schwarzschild indicated secondary periods in the light varia- tions. Analysis of this material by Schwarzschild indicated that not only the fundamental mode of pulsation but also higher modes or overtones occur in these stars. Analytical solutions for a standard stellar model indicated the nature of the period-density relation which pulsating stars should fol- low if they pulsate in the first overtone of the fundamental period. Com- bining his observed mean colours and mean magnitudes of the stars in the cluster Messier 3 with new periods for these stars determined by Martin. Schwarzschild found an observed period-density relation for the shorter period stars which agrees well with the predicted relation. It appears, therefore, that the snorter period cluster-type stars pulsate in the first overtone of the longer observed periods for these stars. This conclusion is of considerable importance for the interpretation of the mechanism ol pulsation. Stellar Syitem. A survey of the proper motions of stars in the southern hemisphere, based on series of plates obtained at the southern station of the Harvard observatory, has been carried out by Luyten. The first results of this monumental task appeared during 1941, consisting of the proper motions of 28,505 stars between declination 50 and the south pole. When completed, the analysis of Luy ten's results will add very materially to our knowledge of stellar motions in our galaxy. Determination of the distances of galactic star clusters involves consid- erable uncertainty due to absorption by interstellar matter. Cuffey studied three clusters in the uniformly rich region of the Milky Way in Monoceros and Cam's Major and found that both the selective and general absorption in this direction is very small to a distance of 3,300 parsecs. The absence of appreciable absorption to this distance, coupled with the absence of extra- galactic nebulae from these star fields, suggest that there must be consider- able absorption at greater distances in this direction. This may indicate the existence of a spiral arm containing absorbing clouds and extending to a greater distance than the average radius of our galactic system would sug- gest. Prediction of the presence of molecules of CH in interstellar space by McKellar was confirmed by Adams from high dispersion spectra of Zeta Aurigae. He found a number of additional interstellar lines and concluded that the pAi'stenre of interstellar CH and CN seemed well established. External Galaxies. A new investigation of the dimensions and shape of the Andromeda nebula was made by Williams and Hiltner with a new direct -in tensity microphotometer designed to trace isophotal contours. This instrument, called an isophotometer, was used to trace isophotaf contours from a negative of the nebul.t obtained by Hubble with the i8-in, Schmidt telescope at Mt. Palomar. Previous measures of the extreme dimensions of the Andromeda nebula by Redman and Shirley gave 2 6 7' x 89'. Williams and Hiltner find the values 4Oo'X9i'. Adopting currently accepted esti- mates of the distance of the nebula, the real diameter along the major axis must be at least So.ooo light years. An investigation by Wyse and Mayall of the distribution of mass in the spiral nebulae Messier 31 and 33, based on radial velocity measures made 80 ATHLETICSAUSTRALIA 81 at varying distances from the centre of each nebula, indicated that the mass in each case is widely spread throughout the system, with very small con- centration of mass at the centre. This result contrasts markedly with the high concentration of light near the centre and indicates that there is no apparent relation between mass distribution and the distribution of lumi- nosity. Observations of the rotation of our own galaxy have heretofore been interpreted as indicating a high central concentration of mass. This may be true, but such an interpretation does not necessarily follow from the observations and the distribution of mass in our galaxy may be similar to that found in these two extragalactic spirals. BIBLIOGRAPHY. Lloyd A. Brown, Jean Domcnique Cassini and His World Map oj 1696 (1941); Fletcher G. Watson, Between the Planets (1941); Bart J. Bok and Priscilla F. Bok, The Milky Way (1941). (N. L. P.) Athletics: see TRACK AND FIELD SPORTS; etc. Athlnno let Carl nf (ALEXANDER AUGUSTUS FREDERICK /UIIIUIIG, I SI tall Ul WILLIAM ALFRED GEORGE CAM- BRIDGE) (1874- )> British statesman, was born April 14 at Kensington palace, the third son of the ist duke of Teck. Edu- cated at Eton and the royal military college, Sandhurst, he served in Matabeleland, Southern Rhodesia, in 1896 and saw action dur- ing the Boer war, receiving the Queen's medal with five clasps. During World War I he was mentioned twice in dispatches, and in 1917 he was created ist earl of Athlone. He was governor general of the Union of South Africa from 1923 to 1931. In 1931 he was made governor of Windsor castle, in 1932 chancellor of London university and in 1936 grand master of the Order of St. Michael and St. George. In the latter year he was also ap- pointed personal aide-de-camp to the king. He was appointed i6th governor general of Canada April 3, 1940, to succeed the late Lord Tweedsmuir. Atlantic Charter: see DEFENSE, NATIONAL (U.S.): "The At- lantic Charter jt \ ROOSEVELT, FRANKLIN DELANO; UNITED STATES: Foreign Relations. (1884- ), British army offi- Auchinleck, Sir Claude John Eyre cer, was born in England, the son of Col. John Claude Auchin- leck. He served in India in 1902, and was stationed in Egypt and Mesopotamia during World War I. In 1933 and 1935 he distin- guished himself on the northwest Indian frontier in engagements with native tribesmen. In the spring of 1940 he was made com- mander of the Allied forces in northern Norway. He took Nar- vik but was forced to evacuate the city when the Allies failed to make additional landings in the south. In the summer of 1940, after the collapse of France, Auchinleck was appointed general officer commanding the English southern command, and he or- ganized the first defenses of England to forestall the threatened German invasion. In Dec. 1940 he returned to India as com- mander in chief. In July 1941 he was made commander in chief of British middle east armies, succeeding Gen. Sir Archibald Percy Wavell (q.v.), who was transferred to Auchinleck's post in India. Auchinleck's armies in Libya, under Gen. Sir Alan Cun- ningham (q.v.), launched an offensive against axis forces Nov. 18, 1941. Auchinleck's plan to cut off axis supplies met with initial successes, but when the British desert armies were temporarily halted, Cunningham was replaced by Gen. Neil Methuen Ritchie (q.v.). Thereafter the British drive gathered momentum and Bengasi was captured Dec. 25, 1941. Austin, Frederick Britten a nd May 8 at Hackney Downs, England. The day after England de- clared war on Germany in 1914, Mr. Austin, then a stock ex- change clerk, enlisted in the London rifle brigade. He served for 30 months with the British overseas armies and was demobilized in 1919 with the rank of captain, A keen student of military strategy, Austin predicted as far back as 1913 that mechanized armies would displace cavalry and infantry in future wars. This prophecy was made in an early novel, In Action, published in 1913. Among his other works are: The Shaping of Lavinia (1911); Battlewrack (1917); The Road to Glory (1935); and Told in the Market Place (1935). He died at Weston-super- Mare in Somersetshire on March 12. Anctin Uorhort Anotin IST BARON (1866-1941), Brit- ftUSllll, nClDcll rtuSUII, ish motor car manufacturer, was born Nov. 8 at Little Missenden, Buckinghamshire. Educated at Brampton college, he went to Australia where he served an ap- prenticeship in engineering at a Melbourne factory. He later went to work as a salesman and repairman for a sheep-shearing machine company. He returned to England in 1893, became in- terested in motor cars then a pioneer industry and designed and built his first car in 1895. In 1900 he became manager of a motor car factory and drove his own product, a Wolseley, in a i ,ooo-mi. endurance rally in the same year. In 1905, he formed the Austin company, which produced 50 cars the first year; by 1914 the plant was turning out 1,000 cars a year. During the war the factory was converted into a munitions plant. In 1922 Austin went back to motor cars and produced the first "Baby Austin." By 1927 the Austin works had turned out 100,000 of the cheap, 7-h.p. cars. Lord Austin gave more than $1,250,000 to the Caven- dish Laboratory of Experimental Physics at the University of Cambridge. He was a member of parliament from 1919 to 1924 and was created first Baron Austin in 1936. He died May 23 at Lickey Grange, near Bromsgrove, Worcestershire. nf or. A self -&vemmg ber of the British com . monwealth of nations, situated in the southern hemisphere be- tween longitudes ii39' E. and I5339' E. and latitudes io4i' S. and 4339' S.; national flag, a blue ensign, with the Union flag in the quarter and six white stars in the field. Ruler, King George VI; governor-general, the Rt. Hon. Lord Cowrie, V.C.; prime minister, J. Curtin; language, English; religion, Christian (census 1933: Anglican, 2,565,118; Roman Catholic, 1,161,455; Presby- terian, 713,229; Methodist 684,022; other Christians, 603,914). Area and Population. Area, 2,974,581 sq.mi.; population (est. Dec. 31, 1940), 7,068,689. Chief towns (pop, Dec. 31, 1940): Sydney (1,310,520), Melbourne (1,076,000), Adelaide (330,000), Brisbane (335,520), Perth (228,000), Hobart (66,- 620), Newcastle (116,000). Capital, Canberra. History. The political upheavals which were a constant threat to stable government throughout 1941 and which culminated in the downfall of the national government in September must have appeared to be strangely out of harmony with Australia's mag- nificent war effort to observers unfamiliar with the background of Australian politics. It is important therefore to record that the Labour opposition declared more than once in the most emphatic terms its determination to prosecute the war to its ultimate vic- tory with all the vigour of which the nation was capable. The reason for Labour's persistent refusal to join in an all-party government must be sought in the history of a trade union move- ment of unbounded vitality and supreme confidence in the ability of the working class movement to undertake all the responsibili- ties of administration. It regards the United Australia party as representative of the bankers and industrialists and is unshak- ably convinced that the bankers squeezed the Labour adminis- tration out of office during the 1930 depression. It regards the building of an Australian nation, possessed of a standard of life hardly equalled anywhere in the world, as the achievement of a people possessed of initiative and vitality and capable through the Labour movement of leading the nation to victory. CITIZENS OF SYDNEY burrowed a U.S. custom and threw paper and confetti for the first time March 20, 1941 to welcome the visiting crews of seven U.S. warships In February, Prime Minister Menzies left Australia for a visit to the United Kingdom, inspecting the Australian imperial forces in the middle east en route. While in England he sat at meetings of the war cabinet, and postponed his departure in order to take part in vital decisions necessitated by the Greek campaign. Dur- ing his absence A. W. Fadden, elected leader of the Country party in March, became acting prime minister. In March the Child Endowment bill, which had Labour's full support, was passed by both houses. The act provides for the payment of 55. a week for every child after the first, and was estimated to cost 13,000,000 annually. The advisory war council was increased from 8 to 10 in order to permit the Labour nominee, Dr. Evatt, to join the council. Fadden again urged the formation of an all- 82 party government, but the offer was rejected by the Labour caucus in May. Menzies, after his return by way of the U.S.A., called for a more urgent war effort and announced drastic new measures by the government (see Economic Affairs, below) but was unsuccessful in inducing Labour to join the government. After the evacuation of Greece and Crete, there had been a general feeling in Australia that the commonwealth should have a more direct voice in dis- cussions of major policy by the British war cabinet. As the other dominions did not appear to favour the formation of an imperial war cabinet, the most obvious solution was for the commonwealth prime minister to return to London, and that Menzies proposed. The suggestion was opposed, not only by Labour, but by some of Menzies' own party, and revealed the existence within the govern- ment ranks of a section who lacked complete confidence in Men- zies' leadership. In the interests of national unity Menzies re- signed his post in favour of Fadden, who was sworn in as prime minister on Aug. 31. Menzies retained his portfolio as minister for defense co-ordination, and no other cabinet changes were made. The Fadden administration lasted only five weeks. After surviving, by a majority of one, a vote of censure on the use of public funds for subsidizing anti-subversive propaganda, the government was defeated on its budget proposals by a majority of three, the two Independent members voting with the opposi- tion. Fadden advised the governor-general to call upon Curtin, the Labour leader, to form a government and pledged the support of his followers so long as the new government vigorously prose- cuted the war. Curtin announced that the change of government would not affect any diplomatic appointments and authorized Sir Earle Page, who was on his way to London, to continue his mis- sion. External Affairs. Sir Bertram Stevens, former premier of New South Wales, was appointed Australian representative of the east- ern supply group, Delhi, in Jan. 1941. In July, Sir Frederic Eggleston was appointed Australian minister to China and took up his post at Chungking. Economic Affairs. On his return from the United Kingdom and America, Menzies announced his "prospectus of an unlimited war effort." This program involved drastic control by the govern- ment of finance, trade and industry. The government was given powers to take over factories and plants and to decide what each organization should produce; a board was appointed to control and direct the production and distribution of coal. All interstate ship- ping was placed under government control, and all rail-road trans- port facilities were made subject to a federal executive body. Side by side with such measures for the control and direction of the means of production the government had to face drastic changes in agricultural economy necessitated by shipping short- ages, particularly of refrigerated space. Plans included the estab- lishment of new secondary industries for the canning of meat, sausages and bacon, and the production of meat concentrates and dried eggs. Cheese and dried milk production had to be increased to replace butter exports. As stated by the minister of commerce (Sir Earle Page): "Our entire agricultural economy is being planned and streamlined to meet the needs of war." Total war expenditure for the financial year 1940-41 was 181,- 000,000, of which 11,000,000 was recoverable for services and supplies on behalf of other governments. This compared with the estimate of 186,500,000. Of this sum, 65,000,000 was provided from revenue. The total non-war expenditure from revenue was 85,400,000. Total revenue was 3,000,000 above the estimate. In presenting his budget for 1941-42 on Sept. 20, Fadden (prime minister and treasurer) announced that, despite Lend-Lease aid, expenditure for 1941-42 was estimated at 217,000,000, of which 160,000,000 would be expended in Australia. Expenditure on all AUSTRALIA, SOUTH AVIATION, CIVIL 83 services other than war was estimated at 102,300,000. After providing for non-war services, only 63,000,000 was available from revenue for the war cost of 217,000,000. The treasurer proposed to borrow 122,000,000 from the public and banking system and to raise 32,000,000 by new taxation and wartime con- tribution, which involved a system of compulsory savings to be levied on every income. However, the government was defeated on its budget proposals and at the close of the year it remained to be seen how the new treasurer, J. B. Chifley, proposed to meet the gap between revenue and proposed expenditure. Education. In 1937: state schools, 10,205; average attendance, 768,848; private schools, 1,880; average attendance, 210,101; technical education, net enrolments, 102,496; business colleges, average attendance, 21,139; uni- versities, number of students, 11,098. Defense. The year 1941 witnessed for the most part the development, intensification and extension of plans which had been prepared during the earlier months of the war. In addition to maintaining reinforcements of men and material for the Australian imperial forces in the middle east, a large contingent was dispatched to Singapore in February for service at various stations in the Malay peninsula. Further contingents arrived there in August and October. In January the government announced its intention to raise and equip an armoured division, fully equipped with tanks and more than 1,000 other armoured vehicles, and with a personnel of more than 10,000 officers and men. Training was proceeding at the end of the year. A 3rd Forestry company arrived in England in July to join the two com- panies which had been sent there for service during the previous year. The Australian imperial forces played a prominent and valorous part in the campaigns in Greece, Crete, Libya and Syria. According to revised rec- ords received from General Blarney in June the Australian casualties in Greece and Crete numbered 261 officers and 5,690 men. Seven medical officers and 150 other ranks voluntarily stayed behind in Greece to care for the wounded. Lieut. -Gen. Sir Thomas Blarney, general officer commanding the Aus- tralian imperial forces, middle east, was appointed deputy commander in chief, middle east, in April and was promoted to the rank of general in September. Because of the increased tension in the Pacific, the government plans for the building of a fully-trained home army of 250,000 were accelerated. In February, the army minister announced that military camps would be extended from 70 to 90 days and that in the future more than half of the total personnel of the military forces would be in camp. The government decided to appoint a commander of home forces, and in August General Sir Ivcn Mackay was recalled from the middle east to take over this command. It was estimated that at the end of the year the strength of the Australian imperial forces stood at 200,000 and the total armed forces in the commonwealth at more than 250,000. In March, Vice-Admiral Sir Guy Royle was appointed chief of the Aus- tralian naval staff in succession to Admiral Sir Ragnar Colvin. The training of air personnel for the expanding royal Australian air force and for the empire air training scheme proceeded ahead of schedule. Most of the advanced training was being completed in Australia in 1941 instead of in Canada as originally planned. The first personnel to complete their training in Canada arrived in the United Kingdom on Christmas day 1940, and the first contingent of those who completed their training in Aus- tralia arrived in Feb. 1941. From that date they were arriving in ever- increasing numbers almost weekly. By October, 205,000 volunteers had enlisted in the R.A.A.F. and for the empire air training scheme- and more than 50,000 had been selected for training. In June the government de- cided to form an R.A.A.F. cadet corps to consist of 78 squadrons, which was to provide for the training of 20,000 boys between 16 and 18. In spite of the drain of man-power necessitated by the maintenance of military forces, remarkable developments in the industrial sphere of war production were achieved. Before the war there were only five manufac- turers of machine tools in the commonwealth; in 1941. 85 firms were en- gaged in producing all classes of jigs and precision tools. Besides am- munition of all kinds, Australia in 1941 produced hand grenades, aircraft bombs, naval mines and gun forgings and manufactured guns and engines for the royal navy. Anti-aircraft guns, Bren guns and 25-pounder howitzers were being turned out in increasing quantities. One thousand Australian- produced aircraft were actually in service, by October. Among the many naval vessels launched from Australian shipyards during the year was in- cluded H.M.I. S. "Punjab" for the Indian navy. Banking and Finance. Revenue (actual 1940-41), Mi 50, 500,000; (est. 1941-42) Ai95,ooo,ooo; expenditure (actual 1940-41) Ai 50, 500,000; ordinary (est. 1941-42), A 102, 306,000; defense, A95,ooo,ooo; public debt (June 30, 1941), A 1,4 2 6, 000,000; notes issued (July 7, 1941), A67, 000,000; gold and sterling reserve (Dec. 31, 1940), Ai7, 705,000; exchange rate, Ai25~ioo sterling. Trade and Communications. Overseas trade 1940-41 (merchandise): im- ports, A 1 3 6, 3 oo ,000; exports, A 13 6, 400,000; (bullion and specie 1938- 39): imports, A3, 562,000; exports, Ai8,96j,ooo. Communications and transport: 1939, roads, total mileage, c. 500,000; metalled, c. 200,000 mi.; railways open to traffic, 27,961 mi.; airways (1939-4), distance flown, 12,822,751 mi.; passengers carried, 142,797: goods carried, 1,770,738 lb,; mails carried, 416,996 lb.; shipping with cargo and in ballast, in net tons, entered (monthly average 1938-39). 558,ooo; (monthly average 1939-40), 508,000; cleared (monthly average 1938-39), 553.ooo; (monthly average i939~4o) 502,000; motor vehicle registrations (March 31, 1941): cars, 548,451; commercial vehicles, 263,219; cycles, 72,923; wireless receiving set licences, 1,282,787; telephones, number of lines, 520,037. Agriculture, Manufacturing, Mineral Production. Production (in metric tons): wheat (1940-41), 2,286,000; gold (1939), 51,187 km.; wool (1940), 512,800; cane sugar (1939-40), 943,000; coal (1939), 12,438,- ooo; lignite (1939), 3,720,000; iron ore (metal content) (1938), 2,287,- ooo; pig iron and ferro-alloys (1938), 945,ooo; wine (1938-39), 680,000 hectolitres; oats (1938-39), 282,000; barley (1938-39), 245,000; maize (1938-39), i79,ooo; potatoes (1938-39), 278,000; butter (1939-40), 216,900; lead (smelter production) (1939), 185,000; zinc (smelter produc- tion) (1938), 70,000; copper (smelter production) (1938), 17,400; tung- sten ore (1938), 540; antimony ore (1938), 900; silver (1939), 385. Labour and employment: employment in factories (1928-29 = 100) March 1941, 151-5; number (average March 1941), 654.500; unemployment, trade union returns (March, 1941), 5-3%; recorded material production (1938- 39), A 4 64,993,ooo. (W. D. MA). Australia, South: see SOUTH AUSTRALIA. Autobiography: see AMERICAN LITERATURE; ENGLISH LIT- ERATURE; etc. Automobile: see MOTOR VEHICLES; MOTOR TRANSPORTATION. Automobile Accidents: see ACCIDENTS; DISASTERS; INSUR- ANCE, AUTOMOBILE. fliitnmnhilp nlllUIIIUUIIC Once again the annual Memorial . 5 oo-mile Indianapolis classic was the high light event of the auto racing featured during 1941. This time it was particularly noteworthy because two drivers shared the distinction of piloting the winning car. While 160,000 en- thralled spectators watched, probably the largest crowd ever lured to the event, Mauri Rose of Indianapolis and Floyd Davis of Springfield, III, successfully combined their skill and courage to achieve the victory. They drove their car at a speed of 115.117 miles per hour over the soo-mile distance to share first prize money, totalling $29,985. They are listed in the record books as co-winners. Davis, famed dirt track contestant, started the race in the winning machine owned by Lou Moore, retired Indianapolis driver. Rose, one of the most consistent finishers in speedway competition, relieved Davis at 177^ miles after Rose's own car, of which Moore was the manager, was forced out at the 15 2-mile mark by carburettor trouble. Fifteen of the thirty-one starters, comprising the fixture's small- est field since 1936, completed the race. The runner-up for the second successive year was Rex Mays of Glendale, Calif., who was more than two and one-half miles behind Rose at the end. Harley Taylor of Atlanta, Ga., set a record for 50 miles in a stock car on a dirt track by doing 100 laps on the half-mile South- ern States fair grounds track at Charlotte, N.C., in 59-54-3. Ray Hall of the same city, won the 2oo-milc stock car auto race at the Langhorne, Pa., speedway, averaging 69 miles per hour. The midget automobile racing tracks again proved popular cen- tres of entertainment for thousands of fans in numerous cities and towns. Among the leaders of feature events in the midget class was Mike Joseph who set a new record for 20 laps at the New York coliseum in 3-37'42. Another winner was Lloyd Christofer of Miami, Fla., who won the Union, N.J., 25-lap midget feature in 5-47-85. Foremost among those involved in accidents was Wilbur Shaw of Indianapolis, victor in 1937, 1939 and 1940. Seeking to become the lone four-time winner, Shaw was leading when he crashed into the wall at the 3oo-mile mark. The noted pilot escaped serious injury. Mays, with his second at Indianapolis and firsts at Milwaukee. Wis., and Syracuse, N.Y., retained the American Automobile as- sociation national point championship. He was credited with 1,225 tallies. (T. J. D.) Civil ^^ * e exce P^ on * activities in North , bill). and South America, and a few international air lines such as Pan American Airways and K.L.M., civil aviation continued to diminish in 1941 from previous years. In nations 84 AVIATION, CIVIL A STEEL "strato-chamber" demonstrated In 1941 reproduce* conditions of high- altitude flights. The upper picture shows a test being conducted inside the chamber, which simulates the interior of a high-flying plane and Is equipped with air pumps, recording instruments, pressure controls and a dry-ice refrig- erating plant. Below is an exterior view of the three-ton laboratory tank at war, military aviation completely dominated all phases of what had previously been civil aviation. International Transport. With the war spreading to new countries, some air transport routes died a quick death, while others, just as suddenly, made their appearance for the first time. As the theatre of war shifted from one stage to another, so did air transport systems change their routes and terminals. The outstanding name in international air transport in 1941 was that of Pan American Airways. In addition to flying its previ- ously established routes through Mexico, Central and South Amer- ica, to Alaska, and across both the Atlantic and Pacific, Pan American, at the request of both U.S. and British governments, established a new route across the South Atlantic to several cities in the interior of Africa. As the year closed routes were extended across Africa, the Indian ocean and Burma to China. On Aug. 1 8, after his meeting at sea with Prime Minister Churchill, President Roosevelt announced that Pan American Air- ways s would shortly begin operations of a new air line between the U.S. and Africa. In less than three months the new line was in operation. Planes flew from Miami, Fla., down the east coast of South America to either Trinidad or Natal, Brazil, and across the South Atlantic to various bases on the west coast of Africa and thence to Khartoum, Cairo and other African cities. It is this route which was extended to connect with Singapore and other points in that general area after the U.S. entered the war in Dec. 1941. The U.S.-New Zealand route was kept open after war began, but the Pacific service beyond the Hawaiian Islands to the Philip- pines and China was discontinued. Until the outbreak of war, Pan American's Atlantic service was one of the most outstanding jobs ever done by any commer- cial air line. In December the sooth crossing was made since the line was inaugurated in May 1939. During 1941 passenger miles flown on this route increased from 13,000,000 in 1940 to 23,600,- ooo. Miles flown had jumped to 1,200,000 from 500,000 in 1940. This route had become the only fast scheduled run in operation, as the sailing of steamships was irregular. In Central and South America Pan American's activities also increased. Miles flown were 5,815,000 compared with 4,019,074 in 1940. Passengers carried increased from 89,650 to 107,580. There was a 63% increase in air express carried, from 579,000 to 950,000 Ib. The Brownsville-Guatemala-Canal Zone-Trinidad trunk line was placed on a daily basis and passenger traffic increased 20% and express volume more than doubled. Pan American-Grace activ- ities along the west coast of South America were enlarged by the addition of approximately 50% more mileage. Panagra's 1941 operations included 2,267,000 revenue passenger miles, compared with 1,530,000 in 1940; mail carried was 157,000 Ib., compared with 112,000 the year before; revenue passengers carried were 29,600, compared with 14,660 in 1940; express of 466,000 Ib. compared with 170,000 in 1940. The air line took over the operations of several former German and Italian lines in South America and also carried out a huge airport building program, particularly along the east coast. Service across the Pacific and the route from the U.S. to Alaska operated at new highs in 1941. Both services played a critical role in carrying military and important civilian person- nel to strategic spots. British Overseas Airways continued to operate a number of its international routes. During 1941 some 4,000 passengers were carried between England and Lisbon, plus 13,500,000 letters. Other routes of military importance were continued in the near THE FIRST OF A FLEET of larger and improved Boeing cliooers for trans- atlantic flights was launched March 17, 1941 at Seattle, Washington AVIATION, CIVIL AN AUTOMATIC DIRECTION FINDER Installed on airways In 1941 enables ground personnel to "spot" the exaot position of a plane in flight. When the pilot uses his microphone, a compass reading of his plane is recorded auto- matically at four stations (A, B, C and D In the diagram). Any two of these stations can then determine by triangulatlon the plane's position east as well as the far east. The line purchased three Boeing clippers from Pan American Airways which were used for special missions. It was one of these large flying boats that was used to carry Prime Minister Churchill back to England after he visited the United States and Canada. The Royal Dutch Airline, known as K.L.M., together with its affiliate K.N.I.L.M., continued to render yeoman service to the Allied cause. One branch of the line ran between England and Portugal. A twice-weekly service was run between Lydda, Pales- tine, and Sydney, Australia. Stops were made at Baghdad, Basra, Bahrein, Karachi, Jodhpur, Calcutta, Rangoon, Medan, Singapore and Batavia. From Batavia, the operating centre, the route con- tinued on to Australia with stops at Surabaya, Bali, and Timor. Other important routes connected Batavia with Balikpapan and Tarakan, as well as with other cities among the islands. How much of its routes would be flown in 1942 depended on the spread of the war. With pilots from the Netherlands East Indies air force winning praise for their gallant deeds, it should be added that their brother pilots flying commercial transports were also doing admirable work for the Allies. German Lufthansa flew fewer schedules in 1941 than in the pre- ceding year. The German air transport system received a setback from the Russian campaign from which it had not recovered at the close of 1941. With shortages in both men and materials de- veloping, fewer commercial passengers were carried on its air lines. Domestic routes continued to be flown, as well as the international runs to Sweden, France, Spain and Italy. Few figures were avail- able. German lines in South America were taken over by either local countries or by Pan American Airways. Air France flew a few local routes in 1941 as did Sweden. Italian planes flew commercial passengers to Lisbon, but elsewhere the military authorities occupied most of the space. In Finland, Hungary and Rumania air transport was strictly a military affair. Russian commercial transport continued to function although a high priority was given to passengers travelling for military or defense purposes. In China, the China National Aviation corporation, jointly 85 owned by the government and by Pan American Airways, car- ried on its work under the most difficult conditions. With the advance of the Japanese forces, the C.N.A.C. operating and maintenance base was moved on several occasions. The pi- lots, largely American, won great praise for their cool work in evacuating key military and civilian personnel from danger- ous areas. In Canada, Trans-Canada Air Lines had its most active year. Some 118 miles of new routes were added between Moncton and the great air base at Halifax. New runs were also added on several routes, includ- ing Toronto-New York. At the beginning of 1941 the line oper- ated 15,000 miles per day, but by the end of the year it was operating 19.000 miles per day. The number of passengers carried per month doubled during the year; mail increased from about 83,000 Ib. per month to 140,000 Ib. and air express almost trebled. The line anticipated services to both Newfoundland and Alaska in the near future. Domestic Air Transport in the U.S. With increased prepara- tions for war taking place throughout 1941, commercial air lines were the busiest in their history. Approximately 4,500,000 pas- sengers were carried as compared with 3,185,278 in 1940. Dis- tances flown increased from 119,517,263 miles in 1940 to about 150,000,000 miles in 1941. The fatality rate per 100,000,000 pas- senger miles declined from 3-05 in 1940 to 2-20. Air express increased from 14,188,178 Ib. in 1940 to more than 22,500,000 Ib. in 1941. Air mail totalled 45,450,000 Ib. compared with 33,800,000 in 1940. Profits were stated to be the best in history for most domestic air lines. Many new routes were asked for by the air lines, but relatively few were approved by the Civil Aeronautics administration. After war had been declared CAA advised that no new routes would be approved unless they were clearly of value to national defense. During 1941 there was a shortage of aeroplanes on nearly every U.S. air line. With steadily growing traffic, the lines had ordered relatively large numbers of new aeroplanes for 1941. Army and navy priorities on transports of approximately the same type kept the air lines from getting their ships. As a result, it was necessary for the lines to practise intensive maintenance to keep their transports flying. Formerly much maintenance was done in the daytime with spare aeroplanes. Since the heaviest schedules are flown in the daytime, it became necessary to do considerable maintenance work at night. However, maintenance standards did not decrease and safety records actually improved. For the year 1942 the domestic air lines were allotted 112 aero- planes. It seemed probable that most of these would be delivered to the lines, since the lines were an adjunct of the war machine. In carrying key personnel of both the government and defense in- dustries, the air lines performed a valuable service. In World War I if an important governmental official had wanted to travel from New York to San Francisco the trip would have required at least five days. In 1941 he could have done it overnight, thanks to the commercial air lines. The air lines were still ostensibly under the Civil Aeronautics 86 AVIATION, CIVIL administration. Actually CAA was controlled by a general of the war department. Air transports might be commandeered for army duty at a moment's notice. It was expected that space on trans- ports would be controlled, with a priority being given to mili- tary personnel and persons holding important government and de- fense jobs. Civilian Flying in the U.S. "The year 1941 was the greatest in the history of American aviation," stated Robert H. Hinckley, assistant secretary of commerce for air. The nation's civilian pilot roster passed the 100,000 mark, an increase of 60% over the 1940 figure of 63,113. The growth was accounted for largely by the training program df the Civilian Aeronautics administra- tion. By the end of the year the army and navy were getting about one-third of their flying cadets from the ranks of CAA trainees. In addition about 2,800 CAA instructors joined defense units in the U.S. and Canada. A new program of training 3,200 instruc- tors was under way. During 1941, 30,000 young men completed elementary courses, with 9,800 still in training at the end of the year. Some 6,000 pilots passed the secondary course, and 3,000 were still in train- ing. Instructor and refresher courses were given to 6,000 pilots. There were approximately 550 ground schools and 600 flight schools operating. The number of certificated civil aircraft increased from 17,500 to approximately 27,500 during 1941. A large part of this gain was accounted for by training planes used in the CAA program. "Certificated" planes included all those registered with the gov- ernment but did not include military planes or experimental models. Up until the time war was declared by the U.S. the private pilot in the U.S. had the greatest of freedom. On the day following the declaration of war all private and commercial licences, except those of air-line pilots, were cancelled. Then re-licensing was resumed but noncitizens and Japanese were forbidden to fly. Fly- ing was also greatly restricted in a zone extending 150 miles from both the east and west coasts, from Canada to the southern border. If a pilot wished to fly more than 10 miles from his home airport he had to tile a flight plan with the army and have it approved. Any flying over certain zones was prohibited. The civil air patrol was formed late in the year. Approved by CAA and by pilots' organizations, it provided for various phases of air activity by civilian pilots. Some indications pointed to the possibility that all civilian flying might be done under its jurisdiction. Production of Civil Planes. In 1941 approximately 8,000 aeroplanes were built in the United States for civil purposes. This number was the greatest in history and compares with 6,748 in 1940. Technical Developments. In the light plane field there were few changes in design over 1940 models. A few new aeroplanes THE PAN AMERICAN CLIPPER "California" landed at Singapore May 10, 1941 to inaugurate a regular fortnightly schedule between the U.S.A. and British Malaya were introduced, one of the most prominent of which was the General Aircraft corporation's "Skyfairer." This was a two-con- trol aeroplane, having only ailerons and elevator, but no rudder. It had a tricycle landing gear and was both spinproof and stall- proof. It more nearly approached a " foolproof" aeroplane than any other designed in the U.S. Originally designed as an all-metal aeroplane, its producers were forced to re-design it for wood and fabric. The few that were built attracted considerable favourable attention. Another new aeroplane was the Langley plane, with two 65- or two 75-h.p. engines and a cabin seating four. Most interesting feature of the plane was its plastic-bonded plywood construction. Both fuselage and wings were entirely of plywood. There were three large aeroplanes under construction of interest to the air lines. The Vought-Sikorsky VS-44A flying boats for American Export Airlines attracted much attention as the first was launched just after the end of 1941. These w r cre 4-engined flying boats that could carry 40 passengers, including a crew. Speed was about 200 m.p.h. for cruising and the range was 3,000 miles. Maximum nonstop range under special fuel and load con- ditions was 6,000 miles. The hull was 80 ft. in length and the wing span was 124 ft. Engines were i,2oo-h.p. Pratt & Whitney. Another new aeroplane announced during 1941 was the Lock- heed Constellation, developed by Lockheed for TWA and Pan American Airways. The first ships were begun but not finished in 1941. This was a 57-passcngcr land plane, powered with four 2,500-h.p. engines, which would boast the phenomenal speed of 350 m.p.h. Cruising speed was expected to be about 283 m.p.h. This would bring Los Angeles within 8\ hours of New York. The cabin and engines were supercharged. The first of this new type should be test flown in 1942. Several of the Douglas DC-4 aeroplanes were under construc- tion in 1941. The original DC-4 w ^ s designed around the specifi- cations of several 'U.S. air lines, but when the prototype was com- pleted it was not what the lines wanted. The original was flown for several months in the U.S. and then sold to Japan. The new DC-4 was a smaller aeroplane, although still powered with four engines. The ships under construction in 1941, although designed for air-line use, were expected to be taken over by the army for transport work. In the field of engines considerable technical developments were made but the newest engines were being used in military planes and progress cannot be discussed. These developments were expected to lead directly to improved commercial engines both during and after the war. The development of the turbo- supercharger, for example, used on high-flying fighters and bomb- ers, would also be a valuable addition to pressurized transport ships of the future. (See also AIR FORCES OF THE WORLD; AIR- PORTS AND FLYING FIELDS; BUSINESS REVIEW: Industrial Groups; MEDICINE; PETROLEUM; POST OFFICE: United States; PSYCHOL- OGY.) (C. N.) AVIATION, MILITARY BACTERIOLOGY Aviation, Military: see AIR FORCES OF THE WORLD; BLOCK- ADE; GLIDING; MARINE CORPS; MUNITIONS OF WAR; PSYCHOL- OGY; WORLD WAR II; see also under various countries. (1897- ), president of Mex- ico, was born at Teziutlan in the state of Puebla on April 24. After completing a course of commercial studies in his native town, he joined the successful revolution against Victoriano Huerta in 1914 and was promoted through various grades in the army to the rank of general of division. In the cabinet of President Rodriguez he was minister of war and navy. President Cardenas later appointed him secre- tary of national defense and personally selected him as successor to the presidency. He was elected president July 7, 1940, by 2,476,641 votes to 151,101 for his opponent, Gen. Juan Andreu Almazan, according to tabulations of the Mexican congress. The new president was inaugurated Dec. i, 1940. In 1941, the first full year of Avila Camacho's presidency, there was unusual political quiet and harmony in Mexico. The chief untoward incident occurred Sept. 23, when troops fired into a crowd of munitions workers demonstrating before Avila Cama- cho's home in protest against labour conditions. During 1941, he negotiated a settlement of the oil-expropriation controversy with the United States. He consistently stressed hemispheric solidarity in defense and on Sept. i, 1941, pledged the Mexican armed forces to that end. He added, however, that his country's great desire was to stay out of the war. (See also MEXICO.) Azores, The: see PORTUGUESE COLONIAL EMPIRE. Although the production of almost all widely used food products increased in the United States in 1941, the output of bacon decreased. Sliced bacon, which had grown stead- ily in popularity for several years, was lower by approximately 500,000 Ib. than in 1940. The output of government-inspected sliced bacon in the first 11 months of 1941 was 292,201,165 Ib. compared with 292,780,137 Ib. in 1940. In contrast, restric- tions in consumption of bacon and other pork products continued in Canada in order that the dominion might maintain its ship- ments of bacon, ham and pork cuts to Great Britain. American- type bacon, unlike other United States meat products, never achieved popularity outside the U.S., and there was little demand for it to be included in the huge lend-lease shipments of food to Great Britain. Canada, at the end of the first two so-called "bacon agreements," Nov. 1939 to Oct. 1941, had shipped 756,000,000 Ib. of bacon, ham and pork cuts to the United Kingdom and was to ship 600,000,000 Ib. more in 1942. Other U.S. meat products were in demand for export, and a total of 1,014,846,403 Ib. of canned meats and meat products was produced in the first u months of 1941, compared with 661,474,977 Ib. in the first 11 months in 1940. Canned pork constituted 396,762,028 Ib. of this output in 1941 and 251,096,103 Ib. in 1940. Canned meat loaves, head cheese and chili con carne made up 130,132,859 Ib. of the production in 1941 and 110,294,541 Ib. in 1940. (See also HOGS; MEAT). (S. 0. R.) U. S. Output of GovernroenMmpecftd Sliced Boeon by Monfht, T94) ond 1940 Month r T January 25,301,058 21,788,563 24,778,179 21,755,898 March ... 23,136,084 23,306,006 April May June , ... 23,652,679 27,0.13,376 27,465,777 26,503,341 26,857,536 27,450,204 July August September 29,932,191 29,335^^9 29,638,038 30,525,151 30,898.065 28,327,275 October 29,333,721 27,487,836 November 25,57*,889 24,899,646 The s P reac * of in ^ ectious agents through by droplet infection was given study in n The possibility of sterilizing air has been attempted by irra tion with ultraviolet light and by means of germicidal m or aerosols. The theoretical basis for the high bacterial ac ity is accounted for by the small quantity of germicidal a$ which may be dispersed through a large enclosed air space. 1 because each droplet of the aerosol contains the same concen tion of effective chemical substance as does the parent solut the bactericidal agent is enabled to act in high concentral on bacteria suspended in the air. One part by weight of proj cne glycol in 2,000,000 volumes of air effected complete $ ilization of an atmosphere containing as many as 200,000 b teria per cubic litre of air within a few seconds. Pneumocc types 1 and III, hacmolytic streptococci, haemolytic staphyloco Streptococcus viridans, Bacterium coli and Micrococcus catarr Us have been tested and found to react similarly. Influenza is caused by infectious agents (filterable virus which pass through filters that screen out bacteria. There apparently many separate viruses which may cause the same t] of symptoms and the alphabet is used to designate them. Tl there have been described influenza A virus and influenza B vii A new strain of the virus of influenza B has been isolated fr the throat washing of a case of influenza during an epidemic California. Attempts to immunize large groups of people in stitutions with influenza A virus have been made using a vacc prepared from chick embryos inoculated with both influenza A rus and canine distemper virus. In volunteers who had receiv a single subcutaneous injection of complex vaccine of good ar genie potency four months previously, the incidence of influer A during an epidemic was 50% lower than among unvaccinat individuals in identical environmental circumstances. The in dence of influenza of unknown cause was not significantly cliff ent in the two groups. Microorganisms have been isolated which possess the power preventing the growth of or killing other bacteria. One of the microorganisms is Actinomyces antibioticus, which was isolat from the soil. Two active substances have been isolated in cr> talline form from this microorganism, one which prevents bactei from growing whereas the other kills them. These substances a poisonous to animals when injected intravenously, intraperiton ally or intramuscularly. The western strain of virus which causes sleeping sickness horses and man was isolated in a naturally infected prair chicken. This constitutes the first time that this virus has bet reported in a ho^t other than man and horses, coincidental wil a human epidemic in time and place. Spotted Fever. The popular conception that Rocky mounta spotted fever is a more virulent and, therefore, a more high fatal disease in the west than in the cast was shown not to I true. One reason which was thought to account for this differen< was that the wood tick, Dermacentor andersoni, carried the vin lent western virus whereas the dog tick, Dermacentor variabili which is common in the east, was held responsible for carryir the strain of lesser virulence. During 1941 some doubt was cai upon this theory since a highly pathogenic strain of Rocky mour tain spotted fever was isolated in D. variabilis territory in th east from which D. andersoni had never been reported. Also strain of very low virulence was recovered from a patient wh acquired the tick in D. andersoni territory in the west, from whic D. variabilis had never been reported. (See also EPIDEMICS AN PUBLIC HEALTH CONTROL.) (G. M. DA.) BIBLIOGRAPHY. 0. H. Robertson, Edward Bigg, Benjamin F, Mill and Zelma Baker, "Sterilization of Air by Certain Glycols Employed j Aerosols." Science, 93:213-214 (1941); E. H. Lennettc E. R. Rickar G. .K. Hirst and F. L. Horsfall, Jr., "The Diverse Etiology of Epidem 88 BADEN- POWELL, LORD BAKER ISLAND cales, Bagby in 1891 started his Monday morning musicales at his studio. He had such success that in later years he moved to quar- ters which could accommodate as many as 1,800. Bagby died in New York city, Feb. 26, Influenza," Pub. Health Repts., 56:1777-88 (1941), and "The Correlation Between Neutralizing Antibodies in Serum Against Influenza Viruses and Susceptibility to Influenza in Man," ibid., 56:1819-34 (1941); Monroe D. Eaton and Dorothy Beck, "A New Strain of Virus of Influenza B Isolated During an Epidemic in California," Proc. Soc. Exper. Biol. and Med., 48:177-180 (1941): H. L. Horsfall, Jr., E. H. Lcnnctte, E. R. Rickard and G. K. Hirst, "Studies on the Efficacy of a Complex Vaccine Against Influenza A," Pub. Health Rtpts., 56:1863-75 0?4|); Selman A. Waks- man and H, Boyd Woodruff, "Actinomyces Antibioticus', a New Soil Or- ganism Antagonistic to Pathogenic and Non-Pathogenic Bacteria," Jour. Bacteriology, 42:231-249 (1941); Herald R. Cox, William L. Jellison and Lyndahl E. Hughes, "Isolation of Western Equine Encephalomyelitis Virus from a Naturally Infected Prairie Chicken," Pub. Health Repts., 56; 1905- 06 (1941); Norman H. Topping, 44 A Strain of Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever Virus of Low Virulence Isolated in the Western United States," ibid., 56:2041-43 (1941). Baden-Powell, Robert Stephenson Smyth Radon PnU/Oll IST BARON (. 18 57- I 940, British army gen- DdUCIrrUVlGll, eral, naturalist, actor, writer, sculptor and founder of the Boy Scout movement, was born Feb. 22 in London. A tireless traveller, he visited the United States on three occa- sionsin 1912, 1930 and 1935 and knew Africa as well as he did his native England. In 1937 ill-health forced him to abandon his active life in London and he returned to Africa to spend his last days. Some of his later works, several of which he illustrated, were: Scouting and Youth Movements (1929); Lessons from the 'Varsity of Life (1933); Adventures and Accidents (1934); Afri- can Adventure (1936) ; Birds and Beasts in Africa; Life's Snags; Scouting for Boys; Girl Guiding; Official Handbook (1938); and More Sketches oj Kenya (1940). He died Jan. 8 at Nyeri, his home in Kenya colony, and was buried on the slopes of nearby Mount Kenya, (See Encyclopedia Britannica.) Badminton. Badminton's leading man continued to be David Freeman, of Pasadena, Calif., who retained the men's national championship for the third successive year. Free- man, a 2o-year-old student at Pomona college, Calif., was formerly a tennis player of international note. He defeated Carl Love- day, of Montclair, N.J., for national honours, although the latter won the Metropolitan (New York), eastern and New England titles. Miss Thelma Kingsbury, former English women's champion, became the women's national badminton titlist, defeating Miss Evelyn Boldrick, of San Diego, Calif. Freeman and Miss Kings- bury won the mixed doubles titles. Freeman and Chester Goss, also of Pasadena, and Miss Kingsbury with Miss Janet Wright, of Oakland, Calif., made a clean sweep by winning the doubles cham- pionships. Miss Mary Hagan won the Metropolitan and eastern titles. Central <4 Y" won the men's class-A team title of the Metropoli- tan Badminton association. Spencer Davis, a Princeton sopho- more at the time of his victory, captured the eastern intercol- legiate title, (J. B. P.) Door William loonh ( lS6o " I 94 I X U.S. miniature pain- D3Bl , UllliaUl JdUUU ter, was born Jan. 29 in Cincinnati, Ohio. One of the founders of the American Society of Miniature Painters, Baer became an associate member of the National academy in 1913. Many of his miniatures are in private collec- tions in the United States and Europe. He died in East Orange, N.J,, Sept. 21. (See Encyclopedia Britannica.) filhort Mnrrk , HIUBll mUlllo u.s. pianist and originator of the Bagby morning musicales in New York city, was born April 29 in Rushville, III. In his youth he studied music under Franz Liszt at Weimar, and he wrote many articles on the Hungarian composer. Urged by New York society women to organize his own subscription-musi- ^ British colony and island group lying east and southeast of Florida, with an appointed governor and legislative council and an elected assembly. Area: 4,375 sq.mi.; pop. (1939 official est.): 67,729 (1931 census: 59,828); capital; Nassau (pop. 19,756); governor; H.R.H, the duke of Windsor. History. Bahamian development during 1941 centred primar- ily about World War II and issues affected by it. Extensive gifts in metals, money and foodstuffs were made to the empire cause, along with a loan of 100,000 free of interest for the duration of the war. Under war conditions the colony experienced serious difficulties in the maintenance of regularly scheduled shipping connections with the United States; nevertheless, the tourist THE DUKE OF WINDSOR, governor of the Bahamas, and the duchess greeting crowds In Chicago as they were en route to their ranch at Calgary, Canada In Sept. 1941 trade boomed. In September the United States naval and air base on Great Exuma Island was formally taken over by that country, although construction was not yet complete. Education. Education is compulsory. In 1939 there were 64 government schools, with 10,376 enrolment; 56 "aided schools," with 3,021; an indus- trial school with 103 pupils; and 49 denominational and private schools with .J,7io. A government high school and three denominational schools provide secondary education. Finance. The monetary unit is the pound sterling (about $4.03 J4). The colony's public debt as of Dec. 31, 1939, was .253.000, Track. -In 1940 imports were 1,284,417 in value, exports 229,140, compared with 1,094,170 and 180,281, respectively, in 1939. The ex- pansion of external trade continued in 1941 with 33% more imports and more than 50% more exports during the first three months than in the cor- responding period of 1940. Imports are almost entirely manufactured goods and foodstuffs, normally coming from the United States, Great Britain and Canada. Exports are fresh vegetables, especially tomatoes (almost entirely to Canada), timber, shell and strawwork and marine produce 1 . Shell and strawwork exports in 11,40 totalled 25,569, a 150% increase over 1939. Lumber, however, declined, as did the small sisal industry. A heavy crop of 130,000 lugs of tomatoes was exported to Canada in 1940, and a larger export was unofficially estimated for 1941. The sponge industry, formerly important, was suspended by government order until the end of 1943. The unbalance between imports and exports was offset by tourist expenditures and continued external (United Stales, Canadian and British) investment in real estate. The 1940-41 season was reported the best since 1937, "if not the best ever." The various export commodities, vegetable produce and fish, are the principal products. Communication ,is by air, with five flights weekly from Miami, Kla., to \ T assau, and by steamer. A new 70o-ac. airport located three miles from Nassau was formally opened Jan. 8, 1941- (Sec also WEST Kim.s, BRITISH.) BIBLIOGRAPHY. West Indies Year Book, 1941-42; Canada-West Indies Magazine (Montreal, monthly); Crown Colonist (London, monthly); West India Committee Circular (London, fortnightly). - (L. W. BK.) Bohrtin Islands: see BRITISH EMPIRE. Baker Island: see SOUTH SEA AND EQUATORIAL ISLANDS. BALTIC STATES BANKING Baltic States: see ESTONIA; LATVIA; LITHUANIA. Seventh largest city of the United States, Balti- more, Md., had a population of 859,100 by the fed- eral census of 1940. Area, 78-58 sq.mi., plus 13-35 sq.mi. of water. The white population in 1940 was 692,533; no^i-white, 166,567. Mayor (Jan. i, 1942), Howard W. Jackson. Mayor Jackson hachheld office in 1941 for four terms, three of which had been served consecutively since 1931; comptroller, R. Walter Graham ; president of city council, Richard C. O'Connell ; all elected in 1939 for terms expiring in 1943. No elections were held during 1941. The new municipal airport, opened Nov. 16, 1941, compared favourably with modern U.S. airports with its new-type control towers and its airport and seaplane base facili- ties. Motor traffic control became an outstanding problem in 1941 with increased defense activity. New parking and driving regula- tions were promulgated after an extensive survey. Defense road construction called for an outlay of more than $13,500,000. Dur- ing 1941 Edmondson avenue was extended to the city line by a dual highway, and a cutoff was being built from the Philadelphia road to the Glenn L. Martin aviation plant. Because of a decrease in city expenses of $16,481 from tax levy funds, plus a decrease in the debt service and an increase of some $94,000,000 in the taxable basis, a reduction of 20 cents per $100 was possible in the tax rate for 1942. Maryland firms, located mainly in the Baltimore industrial area, had received national defense contracts in excess of $1,000,- 000,000, or approximately one-tenth of all contracts, by the latter part of 1941. The Glenn L. Martin aeroplane plant and the Bethlehem Steel company expected an increase of 50,000 em- ployees over the 1939 lists. Building and engineering contract awards in the area were $108,442,000 for the first 11 months of 1941. All important business indexes were above 1940 except ves- sel arrivals and the value of exports. (C. B. S.) JH ^ack f shipping, hurricanes and plant disease con- tributed severe handicaps to the banana trade in 1941. In the British West Indies the British government made arrangements to pay a subsidy on 12,000,000 stems produced in the year ending Nov. i, 1941 (the government had stopped ship- ments of bananas to the United Kingdom in Nov. 1940) The guarantee was later extended to cover 14,500,000 stems, the crop produced in 1941. Because of shipping restrictions, the British West Indies exported only 4,287,742 stems in 1941 and only 4,358,425 in 1940. The hurricane of Sept. 28, 1941, blew down 400,000 banana trees in the Atlantic zone of Guatemala. Ship- ments from the Atlantic coast of Guatemala in the first nine months of 1941 were 801,602 stems, compared to 1,022,021 stems during the same period in 1940. Total shipments during that time, from both Pacific and Atlantic areas of Guatemala, were 5,404467 stems in 1941 and 6,850,677 stems in 1940, all to the United States. Honduras shipments in the first nine months of 1941 were 10,176,- 503 stems, compared to 11,312,199 stems in the first three quarters of 1940. Full-year shipments in 1940 were i4.535>55 1 - Losses from hurricanes in the Tela area reduced the harvest drastically, but new plantations in La Ceiba district reported a 30% increase and largely made up the Honduras loss. Commercial banana growing in the Dominican Re- public, the U.S. commerce department reported, was threatened with ex- tinction by the sigatoka disease. Dominican banana exports to the United States reached a high of 825,000 stems in 1939. But later they declined steadily as the plant disease spread, and in the first six months of 1941 were only 5,827,425 kilograms. Exports of bananas from Cuba to the United States were 886,155 Ib. in the first ten months of 1941 and 176,232 Ib. in the corresponding period of 1940. Exports from Ecuador for the first nine months of 1941 were 966,110 stems. Of this number 463,157 stem* were shipped to the United States and 485,240 stems to Chile. (S. O. R.) Bankers Association, American: see AMERICAN BANKERS ASSOCIATION. Bank for International Settlements. the bank which at the end of Dec. 1940 totalled 495,700,000 Swiss francs, after that remained relatively stable, amounting to 495,- 800,000 Swiss gold francs on March 31, 1941, and receding slightly to 471,500,000 on Oct. 31 of the same year. The volume of the bank's operations was appreciably reduced, for the turn in the political situation in June 1940 inevitably had a depressing effect on the bank's activities. Although its operations in the United States market were made subject to the system of licences in force, in practice these formalities did not prevent business, the bank being granted, as occasion arose, either a general or a special licence, The net profit for the year ending March 31, 1941, was 5,294,- ooo Swiss gold francs, which compares with 7,962,000 Swiss gold francs for the preceding year. In order to maintain the dividend in respect of the nth fiscal year at the rate of 6% per annum, hitherto paid, it was decided to complete the sum of 7,500,000 Swiss gold francs necessary for this purpose by drawing upon the dividend reserve fund. In the nth annual report of the bank covering the business year ended March 31, 1941, it is said that "the Bank for Interna- tional Settlements has been granted all reasonable opportunities for the conduct of its business, which has thus continued not- withstanding the difficulties of the international situation. The bank has adhered to the principles of scrupulous neutrality which it laid down for itself in the autumn of 1939, confining its activ- ities strictly to transactions whereby no question can possibly arise of conferring economic or financial advantages on any bel- ligerent nation to the detriment of any other. Moreover, no oper- ations are carried out which might directly or indirectly run counter to the monetary policy of the central bank of the country concerned or in practice constitute a circumvention of the legal provisions governing the disposal of the currency of that country. When the bank has been faced with opposing claims to the same assets, it has been careful to examine the legal questions in- volved . . . and in case of doubt it has adopted a course designed to protect the various interests involved " (F. A. C.) The national defense program and consequent ex- pansion of general business stimulated the banking system in the U.S. during 1941. Banks increased their commercial loans and expanded their holdings of U.S. government obligations to aid in financing the defense effort. Many of the nearly 15,000 commercial and savings banks in the U.S. assisted the government in establishing contact with the smaller business firms through- out the country to facilitate the making of defense contracts. Leading city banks first felt the expansion, but as subletting of the larger contracts occurred there was a tendency to increase the proportion of loans and deposits in country banks. Bank deposits reached a new all-time peak of $68,453,000,000, due mainly to increased loans and investments and to added gold hold- ings which reached a new high of $22,800,000,000. During 1941 the great influx of gold, which began with the Munich crisis in 1938, dwindled to substantially the level of new gold production. The 6,596 member banks of the federal reserve system, doing the bulk of the commercial banking of the U.S., had deposits of $49,160,000,000 on Sept. 24, an increase of more than $7,000,000,000 over 1940. Reserves of member banks declined during the year principally due to an increase of $3,000,000,000 in outstanding currency to a new peak of $11,224,000,000. Excess reserves were also reduced on Nov. i by an increase in reserve requirements of about $1,200,000,000 ordered by the board of governors of the federal reserve system. Excess reserves were thus reduced to about $3,500,000,000 from the peak in 1940 90 BANKING of about $7,000,000,000, absorbing the growth since 1940 but leaving such reserves higher than at any time prior to 1939. The turnover of bank deposits increased, but not proportionately to the growth in deposits, reflecting the continued idleness of funds awaiting investment or other profitable use. Gross earnings were somewhat higher but largely offset by increased expenses. Income from loans and investments was higher due to greater volume, but average rates were somewhat lower. Total service charges col- lected on deposit accounts continued to increase, and these, together with trust department earnings, again constituted a sub- stantial part of current earnings. Notwithstanding increased earn- ings, the total dividends declared were less than for 1940. A factor which might affect future earnings was the passage by congress of legislation making all government obligations issued after Feb. i, 1941, fully taxable, and imposing a surtax appli- cable to outstanding bonds. Further orders were issued by the president during 1941, affecting foreign funds in the U.S., culminating in the blocking of balances of all European nationals and the requirement that comprehensive reports, designated TFR-300, be filed for each. Instalment loans were placed under control of the federal reserve board, and certain restrictions were ordered to divert more productive capacity to defense needs. The Federal Deposit Insurance corporation insured deposits in 13,442 commercial banks with total assets of over $70,000,000,000, highest figure ever reported. Losses which had to be ab- sorbed were nominal in amount and eliminated most of the weaker banks. The Export-Import bank took a very active role in de- veloping Latin-American trade. The outbreak of war with Japan on Dec. 7, and later with the other axis powers, served to accel- erate the efforts of banking and all other business elements in the U.S. toward war preparations. (See also BUSINESS REVIEW: Securities and Banking; FEDERAL DEPOSIT INSURANCE CORPORA- TION; FEDERAL RESERVE SYSTEM; LAW; STOCKS AND BONDS.) Canada. Banking as well as all business conditions were pro- foundly affected by the war. Industrial production expanded rap- idly, necessitating increased banking facilities and involving war financing on a large scale. Commercial loans of the ten chartered banks increased from $1,102,000,000 to $1,255,000,000, in spite of direct government financing of many of the new plants producing war supplies. Total investments, largely in government securities, increased from $1,563,000,000 to $1,700,000,000. Earnings did not keep pace with volume and activity, due to somewhat lower rates and, more directly, to increased taxes. In an effort to divert a larger portion of the national income to the war effort, the government placed drastic restrictions on loans to finance instalment purchases. On Nov. i a federal program of control over prices, wages, rents and farm incomes was in- stituted which might have a far-reaching effect on banking and business in the dominion. The Bank of Canada increased its hold- ings of Canadian government securities from $580,000,000 to $700,000,000. Note circulation was increased from $331,000,000 to $435,000,000. Great Britain. The burden on British banking due to the war effort was considerably lessened by increased government financ- ing of war production and by the operation of the lend-lease act passed by the United States congress on March n, 1941. The vol- ume of bank loans tended to decrease after reaching a new high level in the first few months of the war, the comparative figures being 1,015,000,000 sterling in Dec. 1939, and 839,000,000 sterling in Sept. 1941. On the other hand, security holdings, chiefly government bonds, rose sharply and total deposits reached a^ew high level of 3,115,000,000 sterling. This was accompanied by an increase in the price level, but the operation of the exten- sive economic control measures adopted by the British govern- ment tended to reduce the acceleration of price increases occa- sioned by war conditions. (See also BANK OF ENGLAND.) Europe. Banking throughout Europe was dominated by Ger- many either through conquest or by control of the economic life of the few countries remaining in a neutral or nonbelligerent status. German banks followed its armies, and financial infiltra- tion was accomplished by control of banks in occupied territories through acquisition of controlling stock interest and other means. Currencies of all occupied countries were based on the reichsmark. Furthermore, reichsmark notes of a type not allowed to be used in Germany were issued to German troops in the various occupied countries and given the quality of legal tender for all payments. Note circulation of the Reichsbank again showed a substantial rise from 12,000,000,000 to more than 17,000,000,000 reichs- marks. German savings deposits increased rapidly to more than 30,000,000,000 reichsmarks, due mainly to lack of goods available to satisfy the enlarged purchasing power. The government pro- vided for the sterilization of such deposits by making them tax exempt if held for a year after the termination of the war. The Bank of France, through a series of conventions with the treasury, advanced 130,000,000,000 francs to meet the costs of the German army of occupation. Note circulation rose from 175,000,000,000 francs to 242,000,000,000 francs. The operations of commercial banks throughout Europe were not made available after the German invasion. (See also EXCHANGE CONTROL AND EXCHANGE RATES; SAVINGS BANKS, MUTUAL.) Investment Banking. The volume of investment securities other than U.S. treasuries distributed during 1941 was well above the average for the years 1937-41, the figure for ten months ending Oct. 31 being $5,045,469,000. This compares with only $3,750,446,000 in the similar period of 1940. Corporate issues represented $2,324,118,000, the balance being chiefly municipal, farm loan and government agency issues. By a change in govern- ment policy, the latter classification would gradually disappear as issues mature, all future financing of government agencies being provided through United States treasury bond and note issues. As in several years before, refundings predominated among new corporate issues due to the attractively low interest rates prevail- ing, more than 60% being in this classification. However, this compared with 75% in 1940, indicating a definite increase in the volume of new capital raised. Municipal issues were offered in smaller volume than the previous year, due in part to reduction of the relief load caused by improved employment conditions and to the reduction in public works to give increasing emphasis to defense production financed by private and federal funds. The United States treasury issued $15,691,528,000 in bills, notes and bonds in the ten months ending Oct. 31, about half to refund maturing issues, the balance to finance the growing defense in- dustry. No less than $3,451,125,000 were issued in October, the highest volume for any month, and with the entry of the U.S. into the war, even this record seemed soon to be broken. The Investment Bankers association expressed anxiety at the vast new expenditures of the government for plant expansion in the defense industries, while private industrial financing remained at relatively low levels. Much influence was exercised by the Re- construction Finance corporation (q.v.), which on more than one occasion threatened to overbid private bankers on public utility and railroad equipment issues. The large refunding issue of the state of Arkansas was actually bought by that federal agency in the face of lower bids by private bankers. The Federal Securities and Exchange commission promulgated regulations during 1941, requiring public utility companies in holding company groups to offer new issues to competitive bidding instead of dealing directly with the company's traditional investment banking connection. Considerable dissatisfaction resulted among bankers, and the com- mission itself recognized this system as not suited to all cases BANK OF ENGLAND but entitled to a fair trial. Government, municipal and high- grade corporate bond prices reached record high levels in October, but late November saw a rise in short-term yields followed by lower prices for all bonds with the outbreak of war with Japan in December. (E. B. L.) Bank of England. The main change in the bank return in 1941 was the steady growth in the note circulation, amounting to 70,000,000 during the first ten months. The figures in the closing months of the year compared with a prewar circulation of about 500,000,000. The chief cause of the rise was the growing war industrial activity, reflected in a record volume of employment and consequent growth in pay rolls. A much larger proportion of the national income was going to people without bank accounts who therefore used currency in- stead of cheques. This growth in the note circulation necessitated two increases in the fiduciary issue during the year, on April 30 and Aug. 30, effected by a transfer of securities from the banking 4o the issue department. There was no change as a result of this, in the outside liabilities of the bank. The bank continued its duties of administering the national debt, including the new loans issued during 1941. These were the 2-J% national war bonds 1946-48; 3% savings bonds 1955- 65; and 2]% national war bonds 1949-51. The first issue closed in the summer after raising 494,000,000 since the opening of the year. The last issue opened in the early autumn. The bank also carried through on the government's behalf the vesting of certain securities. These included Indian, Canadian and South African sterling stocks; also a number of securities and other assets re- quired as collateral to the U.S. secured loan to the U.K. were bor- rowed from holders by the government. The object of the Indian vesting was to provide for the liquidation of part of India's large wartime accumulation of short-term funds in London by re- payment of long-term Indian sterling debt. The Canadian vesting was designed to augment British resources in Canadian dollars, and the South African vesting had the effect of increasing the amount of gold, and so potentially of dollars, at the disposal of the U.K. The bank continued to administer the exchange con- trol regulations, which were further developed during 1941. The work of the bank in regulating the general credit position was increased by the wartime expansion in the ebb and flow of funds out of and into the exchequer. Briefly, if money became too plentiful the banks were invited to increase their loans to the government against treasury deposit receipts. If money be- came tight, borrowing in this form was reduced and special pur- chases of bills were made in the market. The chief cause of temporary stringency was sudden and heavy subscriptions to war loans; e.g., London's "war weapons week," and the launching of the "warships week" campaign in October. The closure of the issue of 1946-48 war bonds was also preceded by heavy subscrip- tions. The spring growth in discounts and advances was due to technical operations arising out of the Indian vesting. In September Montagu Norman, although in his 7Oth year, Bank of England ( million) BAPTIST CHURCH 91 agreed to stand for re-election as governor for a further year, and J. M. Keynes was elected to the vacancy in the bank's directorate caused by the death, from enemy action, of Lord Stamp (q.v.). (N. E. C.) Bankruptcy: see BUSINESS REVIEW: Bankruptcy; LAW; SE- CURITIES AND EXCHANGE COMMISSION: Bankruptcy Reorgani- zations. Bonks: see BANKING; SAVINGS BANKS, MUTUAL. 1040 Dec. 25 1941 Apr. ;,i 1941 Apr. 30 1041 Aug. 27 1041 Sept. 3 1041 Oct. 15 Issue dept. Note circulation . . . Fiduciary issue .... 616.9 630.0 622.5 630.0 623.3 680.0 664.7 680.0 667.3 730.0 6861 730.0 Banking dept. Reserve 14-2 o.i 5.3 17 3 64.6 45-6 Public deposits . . . Bankers' deposits . . Other deposits . . . 12. S 135.7 SI-* 16.1 112.5 52-* 13-6 131-8 57-' 14-9 US 7 4Q.I U-5 122.7 53-0 11. 1 128.2 54-4 Govt. securities . . . Discounts & advances Other securities. . . 78-5 4.0 20. $ 132.2 38-2 10 i 109.3 28-3 24-4 160.3 6.4 23-6 115-9 7-i 2O.6 141.0 2.8 21.0 Banting, Sir Frederick Brant erer of insulin, was born Nov. 14 at Alliston, Ontario. He was head of the Banting institute, and a member of the National Re- search Council of Canada after 1937. Dr. Banting joined a base hospital unit as medical liaison officer between Canadian and Brit- ish armies at the outset of war in 1939, and was promoted to the rank of major. He made frequent trips to England to exchange vital medical information, and as director and correlator of medi- cal research kept in constant touch with his staff of researchers at the University of Toronto. After the start of the war, the Banting institute was turned over to the study of aviation medi- cine, and, as its chairman, Dr. Banting flew extensively under all conditions to discover means to neutralize the strains caused bv high altitude flying and dive-bombing. He also studied con- ditions associated with tank warfare. While chairman of the associate committee on medical research of the National Research council, his committee developed new methods for preserving blood so that large banks could be held in reserve. Dr. Banting, who was on his way to England from Canada, was killed in the crash of a military plane in the snowdrifts of Newfoundland, Feb. 21. (See his biography in Encyclopedia Britannica.) s ^ ^ e United States reported in 1941 a total membership of 11,269,558 the Northern convention 1,561,289; the Southern, 5,104,327; two National conventions (Negro), 4,073,252; others, 530,690 an increase of 167,430 above that of 1940. War engaged the attention of the Northern and Southern groups. In defense of conscientious objectors the former affirmed "the sacred obligation of every Christian to obey his conscience." Renouncing "war as a means of settling international difficulties" and "disapproving totalitarianism," sympathy was expressed "with democratic peoples in their struggle against tyranny," and appre- ciation of the president's "repeated efforts to keep our nation from armed participation in foreign wars, while giving great aid to the Democracies." The Southern convention asserting its "abhorrence of war and all its insanity and brutality," nevertheless declared its "belief that some things are worth dying for; worth living for; and (therefore) worth defending even unto death." Later it was care- ful to record that this resolution "in no way commits the South- ern Baptist convention to an approval of war, as a recognized principle in settling international differences." Plans were laid by this convention for the observance of its centennial in 1945 at Augusta, Ga., where the convention was organized in 1845. The Northern body gave serious thought to the problem of higher education. Many of the colleges were faced with financial difficulties that endangered their future security. All denomina- tional leaders, pastors and laymen, were called upon to endeavour through church, association and convention programs to impress upon the people the need of support for these institutions and also the need of "college men and women carefully, intelligently and spiritually trained to give effective leadership." An emergency fund of $100,000 for this cause was sought on Dec. 7, the Sun- day of Sacrifice. (R. E. E. H.) 92 BAR ASSOCIATION BASEBALL Bar Association, Amtrlcan: see AMERICAN BAR ASSOCIATION. Barbados: see WEST INDIES, BRITISH. DornUv Cir Thnmac ( l8 53~ I 940, British lawyer, was DdlUdjf, dll IIIUHIdO born in Dunfermline, Scotland. He was an honorary member of the Institute of International Law and a vice-president of the International Law association. He was also a member of the Royal Academy of Jurisprudence of Spain and member of the Academic Diplomatique Internationale. An ardent advocate of Anglo-French amity, Sir Thomas was identi- fied in the United States and in Europe with international arbi- tration and peace movements. Among his publications were: Law and Usage of War (1941), Collapse and Reconstruction (1919) and Wisdom of Lang-Sin (1927). He died in occupied France and a funeral service was held for him in Versailles, Jan. 20. (See Encyclopedia Britannica.) Barium Minerals. About 1,000,000 tons of barium min- erals, chiefly the sulphate, with some carbonate, are mined annually, about one-half in Germany and one-third in the United States. In 1940 the United States pro- duction was 390,462 short tons, and sales 409,353 tons, indicating a considerable withdrawal from stocks; imports had dropped to 7,391 tons, as against 73,080 tons in 1931. (G. A. Ro.) Borlfllf ^ e United States crop in 1941 was estimated Nov. i DdllBj* by the department of agriculture as 351,522,000 bu., the largest production of barley on record in the United States. The 1940 crop was 309,235,000 bu.; the ten-year (1930-39) aver- age production, 224,970,000 bu. The acreage in 1941 was 13,- 977,000 compared to 13,394,000 ac. planted to barley in 1940 and a ten-year average of 10,707,000 ac. Owing to an unusually fa- vourable season, all the important barley states except California reported yields well above the average. The yield in 1941 was 25-2 bu. per ac. In 1940 it was 23-1 bu. per ac.; the ten-year average, 20-6 bu. per ac. In Canada the program of reducing wheat production and in- creasing other crops resulted in a larger area sown to barley 4,882,000 ac. in 1941 compared to 3,622,000 ac. in 1940 and a five-year (1935-39) average of 3,553,000 ac. The Canadian crop for 1941, preliminary estimate, was placed at 103,800,000 bu. The 1940 production was 104,256,000 bu., and the five-year average 88,882,000 bu. (See also CEREALS.) U.S. Production of Barley in Leading Stattf, 1941 and 1940 State 10-11 bu. 1940 bu. State 1041 bu. 1040 bu. Nebraska . Minnesota North Dakota South Dakota Kansas . . California 40,054,000 44,980,000 41,650,000 39,226,000 i 7, 260,000 2<;,272,OOO 22,544,000 57,348,000 28,064,000 30,821,000 18,176,000 3 J, 516,000 Oklahoma Idaho . Oregon . Michigan Montana Illinois . 7,218,006 7,098,000 6,048,000 5,890,000 5,824,000 5, 610,000 5,780,000 5,950,000 5,000,000 5,706,000 4,692,000 4,928,000 Wisconsin Colorado . Iowa . . . . 17,236,000 14,625,000 8,478,000 24,525,000 9,368,000 I4,5S3iOOO Washington Utah . . Missouri 4,040,000 3,696,000 3,280,000 3,015,000 2,812,000 4,004.000 Texas .... 7,884,000 3,825,000 Pennsylvania 3,222,000 4,030,000 (S. 0. R.) ,. Bartet (Regnault), Jeanne Julia born Oct. 28 in Paris. Mme. Bartet, who was one of the leading actresses of the Comidie Frangaise for 40 years, made her last appearance in La Htrodienne in 1919. She had played leading roles in the dramas of Racine, Moliere, Marivaux, De Musset, Victor Hugo and Dumas. A report of her death in Paris reached Vfchy Nov. 20, 1941. (See Encyclopedia Britannica.) Basalt: see STONE. Q II Attendance at professional baseball games through- DflSBuQlL out the U.S. in 1941 showed an increase over the previous year's total. Judge William G. Bramham, president of the National Association of Professional Baseball Leagues, enroll- ing 41 leagues of six and eight cities or towns each, from coast to coast, with loops into Canada, reported an increase of more than 3,000,000 paid attendance above the 1940 figure, approximating the 18,500,000 of 1939, baseball's centennial year, the all-time high for the minor leagues. The major leagues, according to Associated Press tabulations during the season, showed a total of 5,220,519 for the American league and 5,029,689 for the National league. Collectively, the major league total fell 31,883 short of 1940 figures, representing chiefly the fact that the American league race, a runaway for the New York Yankees, failed to have the engrossing interest in its closing weeks which 1940'$ neck-and-neck finish between Detroit and Cleveland generated. The National league's 1941 race, on the contrary, was a ding- dong affair between Brooklyn and St. Louis, the senior circuit's attendance gaining over 1940. The National league gain, how- ever (181,389), was not as great as the fall-off (213,272) in American league figures. World Series. The opening game of the world series between the New York Yankees and the Brooklyn Dodgers on Oct. i set an all-time high for attendance at a world series game, 68,540 ("all-time" in this case covering postseason play between major league championship teams dating from 1884 and annually with- out omission since 1905). The previous high was 66,669, set Sept. 30, 1936, at the same field (Yankee stadium, New York) in the opening game between the two New York teams, Yankees and Giants. The 1941 world championship was won by the Yankees, four games to one, setting new records for New York's American league representative club. It was the eighth straight world series victory for the club in eight appearances since defeat at the hands of the St. Louis Cardinals in 1926. Until beaten by Brooklyn in the second game of the 1941 world series, the Yankees had a string of ten straight games won in world series play, also an all- time record. All five games of the world series were close and hard fought, the first two on the Yankee grounds in the Bronx, the rest at Ebbets field, Brooklyn. The Yankees won the first game, 3 to 2, taking the lead on a homer by second-baseman Joe Gordon, the all-around individual star of the series, in the second inning, and keeping ahead all -the way. Brooklyn's 3-2 victory in the second game featured great pitching by the Dodger ace, Whitlow Wyatt, who shut out the "Bronx Bombers" the last six innings. Facing a 2-0 disadvantage after three innings of play, the "Brooklyn Bums" tied the score in the fifth and put over the winning run in the sixth on a single by Dolph Camilli, National league's leading run-driver and named by the official jury of baseball writers as the National league's most valuable player of 1941. The 2-t Yankee victory in the third game high-lighted New York's youthful left-handed pitcher, Marius Russo, who allowed the Dodgers only four hits. New York scored its pair of runs in the eighth inning, the first driven across by Joe DiMaggio, Yankee 'centre fielder and American league's most valuable player of 1941. In this game the first serious adverse "break" afflicted the los- ing side when a savage drive from the bat of young Russo struck his pitching opponent, Fred Fitzsimmons, on the left leg in the seventh inning and put him out of action for the duration. Up to this moment, the rival aces were locked in a scoreless duel which bade fair to stretch on and on. The fourth game, however, staged the most dramatic episode of JOE DIMAGGIO of the New York Yankees established a major-league baseball record by hitting safely in 56 consecutive games in 1941. Here he is shown hitting past Al Milnar, Cleveland pitcher, in the 56th game July 16. Arrow indicates the ball the scries, the play which was not only the turning point of the game but probably decided the series as a whole. The Dodgers, thanks to a home run over the wall in right centre by their centre- fielder, the National league batting champion, Pete Reiser, went ahead with two runs in the fifth inning and held a 4-3 lead with two out in New York's half of the ninth. Needing one put-out to end the game with Brooklyn victorious and the series in a deadlock, two games to two, the home team apparently achieved the objective when the Yankee batter, Tom Henrich, swung and missed for a third strike. The pitch by the Dodger pitcher, Hugh Casey, was a low and sharp-breaking curve. The Brooklyn catcher, Mickey Owen, only partly blocked the ball instead of catching it. Entitled to a chance for first base as soon as the ball touched the ground, Henrich set out for the base and attained it before Owen could retrieve the ball and throw it there. Thus reprieved, the Yankees swung into action with their bats, scoring four runs before being retired. The vital hits came from the bats of husky Charlie (Killer) Keller and DiMaggio. The last game, though the score was close, 3 to i, offered no thrill comparable to those of its predecessors. The Yankees scored two runs in the second inning. Their pitcher, Ernie Bonham, held the advantage throughout over Wyatt, Dodger mound hero of the year and of the series. All-Star Game. The entire proceeds of the annual All-Star game between picked teams representing the two major leagues were donated to the United Service organizations, in amount $53,226.27. The game was played in Briggs stadium, Detroit, July 8. Attendance, 54,674, about' 15,000 less than the record for All-Star game attendance, set in Cleveland Municipal stadium (69,812) in 1935. The American league victory in Detroit by a 7-5 score was the sixth for the American league in a series of nine games played annually, starting in 1933. With the National league team leading, 5 to 3, with one out and the bases filled, a grounder to shortstop by DiMaggio set up a double play in prospect which would end the game. The out was executed at second base, but the throw to first base was wild and DiMaggio was safe, the score becoming 5-4 on the run that crossed the plate on the play. The next batter, Ted Williams, of the Boston Red Sox, American league 1041 batting champion, then brought the contest to a dramatic conclusion by driving a home run over the roof of the right-field grandstand, scoring 3 runs. Pennant Races. The Yankees made history in winning their American league pennant as well as in their world series triumph. They clinched their title Sept. 4, the earliest date on record in cither major league for the i54-game schedule in operation since 1901. It was their fifth pennant in six calendar years, also an all-time major league tecord. By contrast, the Dodgers won their pennant in the most sus- tained two-team race in the history of major league baseball. From opening day to the finish Brooklyn and the St. Louis Cardinals kept so close in the percentage table that there was never a time, all season long, when either side could take a deep breath with the feeling that its lead was anysvhere close to "commanding." Starting April 27, the Dodgers and Cardinal* kept first and second places as their own throughout the season. May 3 they were the only two National league clubs above the .500 mark. Most of the first six weeks of the season the Giants were the only other club which won more than half of its games. On July 15, when the Dodgers beat the Cubs a double- header, they enjoyed a four-game lead over the Cardinals, the largest mar- gin held by either club over the other at any time in the course of the year. For the space of about an hour that afternoon the Dodger lead was actually 4% games. Their double-header was finished before a decision was reached in the St. Louis-Philadelphia game in Philadelphia, a i6-inning affair won by the Cardinals. This lead quickly dwindled, for on July 16 the Red Birds invaded Flat- bush and promptly defeated the Dodgers in a night game, going on to make a clean sweep of the two-game series two days later. In 15 days the scene had shifted so that St. Louis held a three-game margin. On four occasions in late May and June the Cardinals also attained a three-game lead over the Dodgers, their tops for the year. In early June, first place changed hands six times in nine days. For the first time since 1928 the Brooklyn pitching staff had an ace who passed the 2O-game mark in victories. Both Whitlow Wyatt and Kirby Higbe won 22. The 1941 Dodgers led the league in homers for the first time since 1908. Camilli was the first Dodger to win the National league home run championship since Jacques Fournier in 1924. Reiser was Brook- lyn's first batting champion since Lefty O'Doul in 1932, and the fifth man ever to win the batting title for Brooklyn in the 51 years of its National league history, sharing the honour roll with Dan Brouthers (1892), Jake Daubert (1913 and 1914), Zack Wheat (1918) and O'Doul. Individual Achievements.- -Camilli, elected the National league's most val- uable player by the Baseball Writers' Association of America, led the league both in home runs and in runs batted in. His teammate, Reiser, second in the voting, was the first player ever to win a batting champion- ship in his first complete season of major league play. Wyatt, Dodger ace, ranked third. The voting in the American league was closer. DiMaggio's outstanding batting performance was rivalled by that of Williams, the batting cham- pion, whose average of .406 was the first above .400 in the major leagues since Bill Terry of the Giants in 1930, and the highest in the American league since George Sisler's .420 in 1922. DiMaggio, though his batting average for the season was nearly 50 points below that of Williams, established a new record for hitting in con- secutive games, his mark of 56 surpassing the American league record of 41, set by Sisler in 1922, and the National league record of 44 straight, set by Willie Keeler in 1897. 94 BASKETBALL. The value of DiMaggio's streak is reflected in the (act that when it started, May 15, the Yankees were in fourth place, five and one-half games behind the league leader. When it ended, July 17, the Yankees were in first place by a seven-game margin. Pitching honours for the year in the National league starred Elmer Riddle of the Cincinnati Reds as champion in both the won-lost percentage (19 and 4) and in earned-run average (2.24). Vernon Gomez of the Yankees was the American league leader by per- centage, 15 wins against 5 defeats, while the earned-runs award went to Thornton Lee, Chicago White Sox, with 2.37. Minor Laagu. All 41 minor leagues finished out their schedules to a championship decision. The Columbus, p., Red Birds, American associa- tion champions, won the junior world series over the Montreal Royals, In- ternational league play-off champions. Seattle was the pennant winner in the other class AA organization, the Pacific Coast league. In the class A-i bracket, the Nashville Vols, Southern league play-off champs, prevailed over the Texas league representatives, the Dallas Rebels, in the annual Dixie series. Thirty-six of the 41 leagues used the Shaughnessy play-offs, a system of postseason competition in which the first division clubs play a round-rob- in elimination series to determine the final championship. In the three class AA leagues, Columbus won both the American association pennant and the play-off series, as did Seattle in the Pacific Coast league. In the International league, the Newark pennant winners were defeated in the ' play-offs by the second-place Montreal Royals. Both pennant winners in the class A-i circuits toppled in the play-offs. Houston, in the Texas league, went out in the first round, the fourth place Dallas Rebels becoming Shaughnessy champions. The Nashville Vols, sec- ond-placers in the Southern association pennant race, conquered the flag- winning Atlanta Crackers in the play-offs. Besides Columbus and Seattle, ten other pennant winners withstood all challengers in the Shaughnessy finals: Mobile in the Southeastern league; Durham in the Piedmont league; Harrisburg, Pa., Interstate league; Joplin, Western association; Dothan, Alabama State league; Oneonta. N.Y., Ca- nadian-American league; New Iberia, La., Evangeline league; Wilson, N.C., Coastal Plain league; Logan, W.Ya., Mountain State league; and Elizabeth- ton, Term., Appalachian league. Second-place teams victorious in Shaughnessy rounds in addition to Montreal were: Columbia, S.C., which vanquished the pennant-winning Macon Peaches in the South Atlantic league; Cedar Rapids, victors over the Indiana-Illinois-Iowa league flag-winners, the Evansville Bees; Hot Springs, Ark., toppling the cotton states' first-place Monroe, La., team; Eric, Middle Atlantic champs over Akron's pennant club, Salem, topping the Virginia league after Petersburg won the pennant; Ogden, Utah, Pioneer league champs over Boise; Butler, Penn State association, over Johnstown: Salisbury, North Carolina State, over Kannapolis; Miami Beach, Florida East Coast, over West Palm Beach; and Bradford, Pennsylvania-Ontario- New York, over Jamestown. Only two third-place teams beat their pennant winners, the Elmira East- ern leaguers, who conquered Wilkes-Barre, and Clovis, N.M., victors over Big Spring, Tex., in the West Texas-New Mexico league. Besides Dallas, fourth in the Texas league pennant race, but first in post- season play, eight more fourth-place clubs won out over pennant winners: Eau Claire, Wis., Northern league, over Wausau, Wis.; Sanford, N.C., Bi- State league over Leaksville, N.C.; Easton, Md., Eastern Shore league, over Milford, Del.; Pueblo, Colo., Western league, over Norfolk, Neb.; Thomas- ville, Ga., Georgia-Florida league, over Albany, Ga.; MayfielrJ, Ky., Ken- tucky-Tennessee league, over Jackson, Tenn.; Leesburg, Florida State league, over St. Augustine; and Sheboygan, Wis., Wisconsin State league, over Green Bay. The leagues without Shaughnessy play-offs posted the following cham- pions: California league, Santa Barbara, VVestern International, Spokane; Arizona-Texas, Tucson; Michigan State, Flint; Northeast Arkansas, New- port; and Ohio State, Fremont. Indeptndtnti. Following district, state and sectional play-offs, Enid, Okla., became national champion in the final round of the National Semi- Pro congress, enrolling about 8,000 independent teams throughout the United States. The American Legion's Junior baseball tournament, in which the teams qualified by states, crowned San Diego, Calif., the 1941 champion in the finals. (W. E. BT.) ^ n estimatec * 90)000)000 spectators paid admis- sions during the 1941 season to witness the light- ning speed of "name*' teams, conference, sectional and city champions in the U.S. All attendance figures were shattered dur- ing the regularly scheduled double-header programs and invita- tion tournaments in Madison Square Garden, New York, when a total of 317,849 people saw the games. The Long Island university Blackbirds conquered the Wiscon- sin Badgers, 56-42, in one of the glamour contests of the season. Wisconsin became the "superior" team by annexing the Big Ten Western Conference championship, and later by beating Washing- ton State in the N.p.A.A. final in Kansas City. Washington State went on to win the North Pacific Coast conference. Dartmouth ran off with* the Eastern Intercollegiate league honours for the fourth year in a row. Duke succeeded Nbrth Carolina in the Southern conference, and Arkansas beat Rice for the Southwest- ern conference. Kansas and Iowa tied for the Big Six crown. -BEANS, DRY The National Y.M.C.A. championship was won by the Division street team of Chicago. The Eastern Athletic club title went to the Columbus Council K." of C. quintet. The National A.C.U. crown was taken by the Hollywood 20th Century quintet, beat- ing the Olympic club, of San Francisco, Calif., after nosing out the defending champion, Phillips 66 Oilers of Oklahoma. The Ohrbach A. A. team won the Metropolitan (N.Y.) A.A.U. title for the third consecutive year. Sports writers agreed that Frank Baumholtz, of Ohio univer- sity, be named basketball's outstanding player for 1941. Ossie Schectman of Long Island university was second choice. In the competitions in and around New York, the Seton hall (NJ.) five scored 42 consecutive victories, with the great Bob Davies in the line-up, yet Seton hall bowed to Long Island university by the big score of 49-26. Voted to the All-American basketball team were Angelo Luisetti, Frank Lubin, Carl Knowles and Ralph Grannini, of the Olympic club, and Chet Carlisle, of Oakland, Calif. (J. B. P.) Basutolond: see BRITISH SOUTH AFRICAN PROTECTORATES. World production of bauxite during recent years is reported in the accompanying table, the figures for 1940 being largely estimates. British and Canadian demand cen- tres on British Guiana, that of the United States on Surinam (Dutch Guiana), while the axis powers control the outputs of Greece, Hungary, Italy, Yugoslavia and probably France. World Production of Bauxite (Metric tons) 1929 1037 1038 1939 1940 Br. Guiana 22O.IIQ 366,700 382,400 483,700 550,ooo France . , 666,348 688,200 682,400 680.000 700,000 Greece . . 137,400 179,900 186,900 180,000 Hungary . 380,152 532,700 540,700 570,200 560,000 Ital> . . . 192,774 386,500 360.800 483,965 380,000 Neth. E. Indies 199,000 245,400 230,700 274,375 Surinam . 219,603 392,400 377,200 511,600 6i5,434 U.S.S.R. . . 230,000? 250,000? 250,000? 270,000 United States . 371,648 431,400 315,900 38l,300 445,058 Yugoslavia . . 103,366 354.233 396,400 318,800 260,000 World Total 2,185 ooo 3,750,000 3,850,000 4,370,000 4,500,000 United States production was considerably increased in 1940, and further increase was to be expected in 1941, but domestic sources cannot meet the demand, and 'in both 1939 and 1940 about 56% of the consumption was imported, mostly from Suri- nam. Imports in 1940 totalled 629,552 long tons, 90% of which was from Surinarh, as compared with a production of 439,413 tons. Because of the importance of the Surinam deposits in maintaining adequate supplies of bauxite in the United States, that country sent troops to the mines late in Nov. 1941, to pro- tect them. (G. A. Ro.) A traditional army food, beans achieved their largest production on record in 1941 in the Beans, Dry. United States 18,226,000 bags by estimate of the department of agriculture Oct. 10. The previous highest yield was 16,074,000 bags in 1940. The ten-year (1930-39) average crop was 13,297,- ooo bags (100 Ib. bags, uncleaned). The 1941 planting was 2,100,000 ac.; the carry-over, 3,300,000 bags. U.S. Producf/on of Dry feint In Leading Sfoto, 1941 and 1940 (tn TOO Ib. bags) State 1941 1940 State 1941 1940 Michigan . . . California . . Idaho .... Colorado . . . 6,163,000 5,332,000 1.014,000 1,460,000 4,309,000 5,492,000 1,667,000 1,760,000 New York . . New Mexico. . Wyoming. . . Montana . , . 1,256,000 791,000 649,000 250,000 003,000 650,000 005,000 270,000 (S.O.R.) BEARD, DANIEL C. BELGIAN COLONIAL EMPIRE 95 Tartar ( I8 5'~ I 94 I )> U-S. artist and au- British-Russian) conference which opened in Moscow Sept* 29. uaRul thor. and one of the founders of In December, Beaverbrook again accompanied Churchill to the United States, and he remained in Washington to discuss allied problems of supply. (See also Encyclopedia Britannica.) thor, and one of the founders of :he Boy Scout movement in the United States, was born June 21 n Cincinnati, Ohio. His father was a portrait painter and young Beard, who inherited his ability, studied at the Art Students' eague in New York from 1880 to 1884. He established his repu- :ation with his illustrations for Mark Twain's A Connecticut Yankee at King Arthur's Court, published in 1889, and for Tom Sawyer Abroad. But Beard's major interest was the youth move- nent. In 1878 he found that the sprawling U.S. cities had no playgrounds and parks for the development of healthy children. He then launched a drive to take children out of the slums into ;he open countryside, and the fruit of this campaign was the :reation in 1908 of the Boy Scouts of America, a movement in which he was one of the leaders. By 1940 there were nearly [,500,000 boy scouts in the United States and u Uncle Dan/' as Beard was affectionately known, was national scout commissioner, [n 1940, 50,000 boy scouts gathered in the court of peace in the Mew York world's fair to pay homage to Beard on his 9oth birth- iay. He was the author of a number of books for boys and wrote and illustrated a monthly article for Boys 9 Life, official publication of the Boy Scouts, He died at Suffern, N.Y., June 11 Beaverbrook, William Maxwell Aitken, IST BARON (I879 T >' British publisher and statesman, was born May 25, the third son [>f a Scotch Presbyterian minister stationed at Newcastle, N.B., Canada. Educated in the public schools of Newcastle while he peddled newspapers, he entered business and formed a successful merger that earned him a fortune. He went to London, entered politics and was elected member of parliament in 1910. He was with the Canadian expeditionary force in France in 1915 and later was officer in charge of Canadian war records. In 1918 he was appointed chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster and minister rf information. Meanwhile, in 1917, he had purchased control of the London Daily Express, a failing newspaper which by the 19305 he had converted into the largest daily in the world, with a circulation in excess of 2,500,000. Lord Beaverbrook, as he was known after 1917, also became publisher of the Sunday Express md the Evening Standard. On May 14, 1940, he was named by iVinston Churchill minister of aircraft production, and on Aug. 2 le was admitted to the war cabinet. On May i, 1941, Churchill removed him from the ministry of iircraft and appointed him minister of state. The duties of this icwly created office were not itemized at the time, but it later ;urned out that Beaverbrook was the prime minister's chief 'trouble-shooter" in matters of production, supply, procurement, U.S. lend-lease aid, etc. In a further effort to speed up the pro- luction of British arms, Churchill appointed him minister of sup- ply June 29. Beaverbrook was present at the "Atlantic charter" neeting between Roosevelt and Churchill in August and proceeded ;o Washington to confer with U.S. government officials on lend- ease problems. He represented Britain at the three-power (U.S.- Btchucmolcmd Protectorate: see BRITISH SOUTH AFRICAN PROTECTORATES. ROD IfOdninff ** one y> ^th ^ e exception of wheat, was ap- DGG~lvDBplll& l parently the only generally used food crop not included in the United States' 1941 defense program urging large increase in the production of foods in 1942. Although a sugar shortage, with quota rationing, was impending, honey apparently was overlooked. Prices for honey advanced in 1941 only about 15%, a general average estimated by the American Bee Journal, Hamilton, 111. This advance was estimated at 10% in eastern and middle west states and as high as 25% in prairie and mountain states. Expectancy was expressed in the trade that the price to carlot producers might rise to 6 or 7 cents per pound. The normal prbduction of honey in the United States is about 160,000,000 Ib. Much of the production, instead of coming from individual farms, is from large apiaries favourably situated as to bee pasture. Shipments of bees from the United States to Canada in April, May and June of 1941 were reported by the American Bee Journal as valued at $199,580, (S. 0. R.) DftlffiAn PfiUnSnl Tinnim The table below Belgian Colonial Empire. ^\ ^^ iQ a* and mandated territories administered by Belgium (q.v.). Total area, 948,000 sq.mi.; total population (est. Dec. 31, 1939), 14,* 131,000. History. The Congo remained in 1941, as it was in 1940, one of the main assets of Belgian resistance, and its natural re- sources were one of the principal contributions of Belgium to the British war effort. On Jan. 21, two agreements, one economic and the other financial, .were signed in London. The first pro- vided that certain raw materials produced in the Congo, par- ticularly those necessary to the prosecution of the war, would be sold to Great Britain. The second fixed the value of the Congo franc at 176.625 to the , and provided that the whole pro- duction of gold would be placed at the disposal of the Bank of England against payment in pounds sterling. Although the Belgian government and the Congo administra- tion had remained in complete agreement during the last six months of 1940, a prolonged visit of M. de Vleeschauwer, min- ister of colonies, brought about a closer contact, not only with the Belgian colony but also with the natives. The minister, in col- laboration with the governor general, M. Ryckmans, took a series of measures necessitated by the circumstances and the changes brought about by the war in Belgium's trade. After paying a visit to Kenya and to South Africa, where he met Gen. Smuts, M. de Vleeschauwer returned to London in the late spring. An important contingent of Congolese troops under the com* Bt/g/on Cofoniq/ fmp/rt Colony and Area sq. miles (approx.) Population (GOO'S omitted) {est. Dec. 31, XQ30) Capital, Status, Governors, etc. Principal Products 1030 (in metric tons) Imports and Exports (in thousand francs) Road, Rail and Shipping. 1939 Revenue and Expenditure (in thousand francs) BELGIAN CONGO, 927,000 10,356 Leopoldville, colony, Governor General: M. Pierre Ryckmans copper 121,500 gold 17,070 Rg, coffee 23,000 (IMS) imp. 1,022,637 exp. 1,897,154 rds. main, 3.206 mi.; other 30,718 mi.; rly. 3.051 mi.; shpg. cleared 132,673 net tons (est. 1040) rev. 747,*o8 exp. 779,821 RUANDA and UIUNDI, 21,200 3,775 Nfianxa (Ruanda), Kitega (Unindi), coffee (export) 4,050 tons tin (export) 1,550 tons (1939) imp. 55,041 roads open to traffic, 1,747 mi. . United administrative- ly with the Belgian mandated territory united administra- tively with the Bel- gian Congo exp, 83,855 Congo 96 BELGIAN CONGO BELL, ALEXANDER mand of Gen. Gillaert took part in the operations pursued during the summer against the Italians in Abyssinia. They distinguished themselves on several occasions, particularly in the conquest of the Galla Sidano, where 1,200 Italians and 2,000 native soldiers were made prisoners. This action led to the capitulation of 15,000 men, the total Italian forces south of the Blue Nile. (E. CA.) Belgian Congo: see BELGIAN COLONIAL EMPIRE. Qalrriiim Area n ' 775 sc i- mi -' PP- ^ est - Dec - 3i, 1939), DclglUIII. 8,396,276; chief towns (pop. Dec. 31, 1938): Brussels and suburbs (cap., 912,774); Antwerp (273,317); Ghent (162,858); Liege (162,229). Ruler: King Leopold III; prime minister (in exile): Hubert Pierlot; languages: French and Flem- ish; religion: Christian (mainly Roman Catholic). History. Events connected with Belgium in 1941 may be roughly divided into two groups, the one concerned with the activity of the government and the refugees in Great Britain, and the other with the attitude of 8,000,000 people who remained under German occupation. Belgian Government in Great Britain. As soon as the Bel- gian ministers were able to reach London after the collapse of France, they took a series of measures to bring into the war effort all the country's remaining resources. All Belgian men of military age in Great Britain and elsewhere were called up. By 1941 they formed, with the veterans of the 1940 campaign who were able to escape, the nucleus of a new Belgian army and air force. A large proportion of the Belgian merchant navy joined in the war effort, with a number of fishermen, munition and agricultural workers. The devotion to duty of airmen and sailors was on several occasions acknowledged by the British authorities. Belgian man power was completely mobilized. The same may be said of economic and financial resources. An agreement signed Jan. 21, 1941, between the British and Belgian governments, placed the reserves of the Congo, in gold and war material, at the disposal of the British empire (see BELGIAN COLONIAL EMPIRE). The misunderstandings which arose in 1940 concerning King Leopold, his conduct of military operations and the surrender of the Belgian army, were the subject of several publications, in- cluding The Prisoner of Laeken, by Emile Cammaerts, and the official Grey Book issued in September by the Belgian ministry of foreign affairs. Two British cabinet ministers, Anthony Eden and CHILDREN OF BELGIUM at a soup kitchen in 1941. Many children, according to an Investigation by Herbert Hoover't Committee on Food for the Five Small Democracies, were so undernourished they could not attend school Oliver Lyttelton, paid homage to the dignified attitude of the Belgian sovereign who, by his refusal to collaborate in any way with the occupying power, had become the centre of resistance of the Belgian people at home and abroad. On June 12 the Belgian government joined in the common declaration of collaboration in war and peace adopted by the representatives of the Allied nations, convened at St. James's palace by Prime Minister Churchill. They also joined in the reso- lution passed at the second meeting of the Allied council in Sep- tember, endorsing the eight points of the Atlantic charter. The Belgian People Under German Occupation. From the beginning of the year it was apparent that the German authorities would be as powerless to conciliate Belgian opposition during World War II as during World War I. Their efforts to enlist support through the action of a few fifth columnists succeeded only in discrediting the few Rexist and Separatist leaders who lent themselves to this manoeuvre. Resistance was stiffened through the influence of the clergy and the trade unions. Although these unions and societies, whether Catholic or Socialist, had been dissolved or placed under German control, they retained a con- siderable influence, and the German press on many occasions expressed its dissatisfaction at the unwillingness of Belgian work- ers to increase production or to go and work in Germany. Only the threat of starvation compelled about 200,000 unemployed to do so. The removal of patriotic high officials from ministerial departments, and of a number of burgomasters and aldermen among these the successor of Brussels' Burgomaster Max in- creased the resistance already stirred by a number of seizures and requisitions. During the last months of the year, public demonstra- tions, the activity of the secret press, including a new Libre Belgique, and various acts of sabotage increased in gravity, and the Germans were compelled to resume the violent measures which th^ir military leaders had adopted in 1914-18. Confinement in prison camps and individual sentences of imprisonment were replaced by the arrest of numerous hostages and their summary execution. The food situation grew more and more critical, and conditions made it likely that the life and health of the children of the poor would suffer gravely during the winter. Nevertheless, the spirit of the people and their faith in ultimate deliverance had never been so strong since the beginning of hostilities. In a pastoral letter read in Belgian churches on Dec. 7 it was revealed that on Sept. 1 1 at Laeken castle King Leopold had mar- ried Mile. Mary Lelia Baels, who took the name of Princess de Rethy. , -; (E. CA.) Education. In 1938: primary schools 8,712; scholars 955,038; higher schools 273; scholars 86,279; universities (1937-38) 4; students 10,776. Bonking and Finance. Revenue, .ordinary (est. 1940) 11,343,032,000 francs; expenditure, ordinary (est. 1940) 11,632,978,000 francs; public debt (Dec. 31, 1939) 59,318,300,000 francs; notes in circulation (Dec. 31, 1939) 27,994,000,000 francs; gold reserve (Dec. 31, 1939) 17,968,000,000 francs; exchange rate (average Jan.-March 1940) i belga~i6.88 U.S. cents. Trade ond Communication. External trade (merchandise): imports (1939) 19,690,000,000 francs; exports (1939) 21,670,000,000 francs. Communi- cations and transport: roads, suitable for motor traffic (1939) 6,571 mi.; railways, open to traffic, main (1939) 3,*9O mi.; airways (1938), distance travelled 1,457,050 mi.; passenger mileage 8,255,980 mi.; baggage mile- age 156,762 ton mi.; mail mileage 78,412 ton mi.; newspapers 52,504 ton mi. Shipping (July i, 1939) 408,418 net tons; tonnage launched (July 1938-June 1939) 27.600 gross tons; vessels entered, in net tons (monthly average 1938) 2,497,000; (July 1939) 2,801,000; cleared (monthly aver- age 1938) 2,502,000; (July 1939) 2,803,000; motor vehicles licensed (Dec. 31, 1938): 155,174 tars; 77, 600 commercial; 67,016 cycles; receiving set licences (1938) 1,082,200; telephone subscribers, local (1938) 287,323. Agriculture, Manufacturing, Mineral Production. production 1939 (in met- ric tons): wheat 349,000; oats 724,200; rye 349,400; potatoes 3,323,200; coal 29,847,000; pig iron and ferroalloys 3,068,000; steel 3,111,000; beet sugar 240,500; barley 51,000; butter 61,000; margarine 60,700; artificial silk 5,900. Industry and labour: industrial production (1929 100) (aver- age 1939) 83.3; (Jan. 1940) 79.1; number wholly unemployed (average 1939) 195,211; (March 1940) 163,598. Bell, Alexander (i887?-i94i), British chief of the crim- inal investigation department of Scotland BENEFACTIONS BERMUDA 97 Yard, started his career as a crime detector while he was a rookie policeman. Two factors were responsible for his rise to the head of Scotland Yard: a sharp nose for crime and an unimpressive appearance. In 1932 he became a national hero when he caught the ringleaders of the Dartmoor prison mutiny. Bell, a detective- sergeant at the time, was promoted to inspector and solved a sensational poison crime that further enhanced his reputation. He devoted his later years to investigating bucket-shop operators at which he was eminently successful because he looked like a "sucker" ripe for fleecing. Throughout his 30 years on the metro- politan police force, Bell relied heavily on reading in criminal psychology, and he left an extensive library on the subject. He died in London, July 5. Bentfactions: sec DONATIONS AND BEQUESTS. P r duction f bentonitc in the United States * in 1940 increased to 247,132 short tons. Much of the increased demand that had developed during later years had been as a substitute for fuller's earth as a filtering and bleaching agent in the refining of petroleum and also as a fluid mud to flush out the cuttings in well drilling. A number of minor uses are based on bentonite's peculiar property of absorbing large amounts of water to make an emulsion that remains in suspension indefi- nitely. (See also FULLER'S EARTH; MICA.) (G. A. Ro.) Berenschot, Gerardus Johannes 24, in Solok, Sumatra, was named commander in chief of the Netherlands Indies army in 1939. He helped mechanize the col- ony's army. Gen. Berenschot was killed in an aeroplane accident near the airport of Batavia, Netherlands Indies, Oct. 13. Rorff Frnct IllllllC ( I8 7i-'940, U.S. electrophysiclst and DCIg v LI HOI tlUIIUo mathematician, was born Jan. 9 in Os- tersund, Sweden. He studied engineering at the Royal Polyteck- nicum in Stockholm and went to the Unit